Education in its broadest sense is any act or
experience that has a formative effect on the
mind,
character or physical
ability of an individual. In its technical sense education is the
process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated
knowledge,
skills
and
values from one generation to
another.
Teachers in educational institutions direct
the education of
students and might draw on
many
subjects, including
reading,
writing,
mathematics,
science and
history. This
process is sometimes called
schooling when
referring to the education of teaching only a certain subject,
usually as professors at institutions of
higher learning. There is also education in
fields for those who want specific
vocational skills, such as those
required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education
possible at the
informal level,
such as, in museums and libraries, with the Internet and in life
experience.
The
right to education has been
described as a basic
human right: since
1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the
European Convention on Human
Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to
education. At world level, the
United
Nations'
International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966
guarantees this right under its Article 13.
Systems of formal education
Education is a concept, referring to the process
in which students can learn something:
- Instruction refers to the facilitating of
learning toward identified objectives, delivered either by an
instructor or other forms.
- Teaching refers to the actions of a real live
instructor designed to impart learning to the student.
- Learning refers to learning with a view toward
preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities
that can be applied immediately upon completion.
Primary education
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5-7 years
of formal, structured education. In general, main education
consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of
five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within,
countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age children are
enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. Under
the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries
have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary
education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for
children to receive primary education. The division between primary
and
secondary education is
somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or
twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate
middle schools, with the transition to the
final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age
of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly
referred to as
primary schools. Primary schools in these
countries are often subdivided into
infant
schools and
junior schools.
Secondary education
In most contemporary
educational
systems of the world, secondary education consists of the
second years of formal education that occur during
adolescence. It is characterized by transition
from the typically compulsory, comprehensive
primary education for
minor, to the optional, selective
tertiary, "post-secondary", or "
higher" education (e.g.,
university,
vocational school) for
adults. Depending on the system, schools for this
period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or
high schools,
gymnasium,
lyceums,
middle schools,
colleges, or
vocational schools. The exact meaning of
any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact
boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from
country to country and even within them, but is generally around
the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education
occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States and
Canada primary and secondary education together are sometimes
referred to as
K-12
education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of
secondary education can be to give
common knowledge, to prepare for
higher education or to train directly in a
profession.
The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not
happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and
technological advances in factories (i.e. emergence of
electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet
this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum
focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students
for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be
beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because this
improvement in human capital caused employees to become more
efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled
employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary
educational attainment.
In Europe the grammar school or academy existed from as early as
the 1500s, public schools or fee paying schools, or charitable
educational foundations have an even longer history.
Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post
secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that
follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education,
such as a high school,
secondary
school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include
undergraduate and
postgraduate education, as well as
vocational education and
training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions
that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes
known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally
results in the receipt of
certificates,
diplomas, or
academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services
activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it
includes both the
undergraduate level (sometimes referred
to as
tertiary education) and the
graduate (or
postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as
graduate school). Higher education in that
country generally involves work towards a degree-level or
foundation degree qualification. In most
developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%)
now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher
education is therefore very important to national
economies, both as a significant industry in its
own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for
the rest of the economy.
Adult education
Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on
many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to
self-directed learning and
e-learning. A
number of career specific courses such as
veterinary, medical billing and coding,
real estate license,
bookkeeping and many more are now available to
students through the
Internet.
Alternative education
Alternative education, also
known as
non-traditional education or
educational
alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all
forms of education outside of
traditional education (for all age
groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of
education designed for students with special needs (ranging from
teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of
education designed for a general audience and employing alternative
educational philosophies and methods.
Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of
education reform and are rooted in various
philosophies that are
commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional
compulsory education. While some have
strong
political,
scholarly, or
philosophical orientations, others are more
informal associations of teachers and
students dissatisfied with certain aspects of
traditional education . These
alternatives, which include
charter
school,
alternative school,
independent school, and
home-based learning vary widely, but
often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships
between students and teachers, and a
sense of community .
Indigenous education
Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education
(methods and content) as an alternative within the scope of formal
and
non-formal education
systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing to
the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose
to access these systems, both as students/learners and as
teachers/instructors.
As an educational method, the inclusion of indigenous ways of
knowing, learning, instructing, teaching and training, has been
viewed by many critical and postmodern scholars as important for
ensuring that students/learners and teachers/instructors (whether
indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in
a culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes
and enhances awareness of indigenous traditions.
For indigenous students or learners, and teachers or instructors,
the inclusion of these methods often enhances educational
effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by providing education
that adheres to their own inherent perspectives, experiences and
worldview. For non-indigenous students and teachers, education
using such methods often has the effect of raising awareness of the
individual traditions and collective experience of surrounding
indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting greater
respect for and appreciation of the cultural realities of these
communities and peoples.
In terms of educational content, the inclusion of
indigenous knowledge, traditions,
perspectives, worldviews and conceptions within curricula,
instructional materials and textbooks and coursebooks have largely
the same effects as the inclusion of indigenous methods in
education. Indigenous students and teachers benefit from enhanced
academic effectiveness, success and learning outcomes, while
non-indigenous students/learners and teachers often have greater
awareness, respect, and appreciation for indigenous communities and
peoples in consequence of the content that is shared during the
course of educational pursuits.
A prime example of how indigenous methods and content can be used
to promote the above outcomes is demonstrated within
higher education in Canada. Due
to certain jurisdictions' focus on enhancing academic success for
Aboriginal learners and
promoting the values of
multiculturalism in society, the inclusion
of indigenous methods and content in education is often seen as an
important obligation and duty of both governmental and educational
authorities.
Process
Curriculum
An
academic discipline
is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the
university, or via some other such method. Each discipline usually
has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines
are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of
academic disciplines include the
natural
sciences,
mathematics,
computer science,
social sciences,
humanities and
applied
sciences.
Learning modalities
There has been work on
learning
styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn focused on
identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and
manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as
Joseph Renzulli recommended varying
teaching strategies.
Howard Gardner
identified individual talents or aptitudes in his
Multiple Intelligences theories.
Based on the works of
Jung, the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and
Keirsey Temperament
Sorter focused on understanding how people's personality
affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the
way individuals respond to each other within the learning
environment. The work of
David Kolb and
Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator
follows a similar but more simplified approach.
It is currently fashionable to divide education into different
learning "modes". The learning modalities are probably the most
common:
- Visual: learning based on observation and
seeing what is being learned.
- Auditory: learning based on listening
to instructions/information.
- Kinesthetic: learning based on
hands-on work and engaging in activities.
It is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality,
different teaching techniques have different levels of
effectiveness. A consequence of this theory is that effective
teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover
all three learning modalities so that different students have equal
opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them. Guy
Claxton has questioned the extent that
learning styles such as VAK are helpful,
particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and
therefore restrict learning.
Teaching
Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence
to students. While traditionally this has involved lecturing on the
part of the teacher, new instructional strategies such as
team-based learning put the teacher more
into the role of course designer, discussion facilitator, and coach
and the student more into the role of active learner, discovering
the subject of the course. In any case, the goal is to establish a
sound knowledge base and skill set on which students will be able
to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. Good
teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and
wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand,
retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the
quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting
student performance, and that countries which score highly on
international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that
the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.
Technology
Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education.
Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to
complement established education practices and develop new ways of
learning such as
online education
(a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity
to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation
of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging.
Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills
and understandings of students, including
Multimedia, and provides new ways to
engage students, such as
Virtual learning
environments.Technology is being used more not only in
administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of
students. The use of technologies such as
PowerPoint and
interactive whiteboard is capturing
the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also
being used in the assessment of students. One example is the
Audience
Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests
and classroom discussions.
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse
set of tools and resources used to communicate, create,
disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies
include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio
and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how
computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in
both formal and non-formal settings. Older ICT technologies, such
as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for
open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest,
most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in
both developed and developing countries.
The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in
developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited
infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually,
various technologies are used in combination rather than as the
sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio
Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet
technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide
educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka. The
Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969
as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated
to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based
materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years,
online programming. Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open
University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and
video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing
technologies.
The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly
used to describe the use of technology in teaching.
Educational theory
Education theory is the theory of
the purpose, application and interpretation of education and
learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists
and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and
andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella
term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment
and education law, most of which are informed by various academic
fields, which can be seen in the below sections.
Economics
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for
countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.
Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that
poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they
can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by
rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable
managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or
production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the
gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from
the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital." Recent
study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have
stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions and
the role of cognitive skills.
At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally
related back to the work of Jacob Mincer, on how earnings are
related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual.
This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also
controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to
interpret the impact of schooling.
Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Ginits famously argued in 1976
that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between
the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the
inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist
production on the other.
History
The
history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the
Freie
Universität Berlin
1994 "began either millions of years ago or at the
end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated
from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained
the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would
need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture,
and human beings as a species depended on this practice of
transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved
orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one
generation to the next. Oral language developed into written
symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could
be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures
began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of
communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc,
formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in
this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and
500BC.
Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most
countries.
Due to population growth and the
proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO
has
calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive
formal education than in all of human history thus
far.
Philosophy
Philosophy of education is
the
philosophical study of the purpose,
process, nature and ideals of education. Philosophy of education
can naturally be considered a branch of both philosophy and
education. Philosophy of education is commonly housed in colleges
and departments of education, yet it is
applied philosophy, drawing from the
traditional fields of philosophy (
ontology,
ethics,
epistemology, etc.) and approaches (
speculative, prescriptive, and/or
analytic) to address questions regarding
education policy, human development, education research
methodology, and curriculum theory, to name a few.
Psychology
Educational psychology is the
study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the
social
psychology of
schools as
organizations. Although the terms "educational
psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably,
researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as
educational
psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or
school-related settings are identified as
school psychologists. Educational
psychology is concerned with the processes of educational
attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as
gifted children and those with specific
disabilities.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its
relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by
psychology, bearing a relationship to
that discipline analogous to the relationship between
medicine and
biology.
Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities
within educational studies, including
instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum
development,
organizational
learning, special education and
classroom management. Educational
psychology both draws from and contributes to
cognitive science and the
learning sciences. In universities,
departments of educational psychology are usually housed within
faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of
representation of educational psychology content in introductory
psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
Sociology
The
sociology of education is
the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational
processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is
understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater
equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994).
Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and
betterment. Education is perceived as a place where children can
develop according to their unique needs and potentialities. The
purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their
full potential. The understanding of the goals and means of
educational
socialization processes
differs according to the
sociological paradigm used.
Educational Development
In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems
faced are naturally greater. People in more remote or agrarian
areas are sometimes unaware of the importance of education.
However, many countries have an active
Ministry of Education, and
in many subjects, such as foreign language learning, the degree of
education is actually much higher than in industrialized countries;
for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in many
developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign
languages, whereas this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly
"more educated" countries where much of the population is in fact
monolingual.
There is also economic pressure from those parents who prefer their
children making money in the short term over any long-term benefits
of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have
suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic
threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs,
parents return their children to school. This has been found to be
true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential
economic value of the children's work has increased since their
return to school.
A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good
universities, is evident in countries with a high population
density. In some countries, there are uniform, over structured,
inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that
regulates all aspects of education.
- Due to globalization, increased
pressure on students in curricular activities
- Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation
of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)
India is now developing technologies that will skip land based
phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched
EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of
the country at a greatly reduced cost.
There is also an
initiative started by the OLPC
foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab
and supported by several major corporations to
develop a $100 laptop to deliver
educational software. The laptops are widely available as of
2009. The laptops are sold at cost or given away based on
donations. These will enable developing countries to give their
children a digital education, and help close the digital divide
across the world.
In Africa,
NEPAD has launched an "
e-school programme" to provide all
600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning
materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like
The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to
give more individuals opportunities to receive education in
developing countries through such programs as the
Perpetual Education Fund. An
International Development Agency project called
nabuur.com, started
with the support of American President
Bill
Clinton, uses the
Internet to allow
co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
Internationalisation
Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the
materials becoming more influenced by the rich international
environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also
playing an increasingly important role. In Europe, for example, the
Socrates-Erasmus
Programme stimulates exchanges across European universities.
Also, the
Soros
Foundation provides many opportunities for students from
central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that,
regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than
another, experiencing a different way of education can often be
considered to be the most important, enriching element of an
international learning experience.
Religion and Education
See main article:
Religious
Education
In Islam education is very important for both males and females ,
particularly young children. Contrary to common perception , the
seeking of all types of knowledge - be it academic, vocational,
religious or secular - is encouraged at all ages. However, learning
at an early age is thought to allow the mind to concentrate without
the stresses and responsibilities of later adult life.Inter-Islam
> A-Z > Education
/www.inter-islam.org/A-Z/E/E.htm#Education>.
See also
References
- UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net
Enrollment Rate in primary education
- See Merriam et al. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive
Guide (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). Sharan Merriam,
Rosemary Caffarella and Lisa Baumgartner write that “we need only
look more closely inside our own borders, to Native Americans, for
example… to find major systems of thought and beliefs embedded in
entirely different cultural values and epistemological systems that
can be drawn upon to enlarge our understanding of adult
learning” (p. 218). Merriam et al. then go on to explain that
another purpose in becoming familiar with other knowledge systems
is the benefit this knowledge will have in affecting our practice
with learners having other than Western worldviews. Antone and
Gamlin (2004) for example, argue that to be effective, literacy
programs with Aboriginal people (a term they use to refer to First
Nations, Inuit, and Metis persons and collectivities) must be more
than ‘reading, numeracy and writing which is typically geared
towards gaining access to mainstream employment’ (p. 26). Rather
Aboriginal literacy is about sustaining a particular worldview and
about the survival of a distinct and vital culture. Being literate
is about resymbolizing and reinterpreting past experience, while at
the same time honoring traditional values. Being literate is about
"living" these values in contemporary times. Being literate is
about "visioning" a future in which an Aboriginal "way of being"
will continue to thrive. Meaningful Aboriginal literacy will
develop and find expression in everything that is done.
Consequently, Aboriginal literacy programs must reflect a broad
approach that recognizes the unique ways that Aboriginal people
represent their experience and knowledge. [p. 26; italics in
original] Frequently, Merriam et al. also return to this need “to
enlarge our understanding of adult learning” through the lens of
cultural sensitivity by focusing on theories related to the
intimate connection between learning and social context– often
framed in terms of inclusiveness and respect for differing values,
beliefs, experiences, perspectives and environments as strongly
correlated with the traditional ways and methods inherent in both
individual and collective notions of culture. For instance, in
their discussion of experiential learning, the authors comment that
“in acknowledging cognition and learning from experience as a
cultural phenomenon, the perspectives of critical… and postmodern
thinkers become crucial. Among the major results of thinking about
cognition from a cultural frame are the critiques that have been
fostered about traditional educational theory and practice…
Foremost among these critiques is a challenge to the fundamental
notion that learning is something that occurs within the
individual. Rather, learning encompasses the interaction of
learners and the social environments in which they function” (p.
180).
- See generally R. A. Malatest et al. Best Practices in
Increasing Aboriginal Post-secondary Enrollment Rates (Canada:
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2002) [1] and Dr. Pamela Toulouse, Supporting Aboriginal
Student Success: Self-Esteem and Identity, A Living Teachings
Approach (Presentation delivered at the 2007 Ontario Education
Research Symposium)[2]
- In the Canadian province of Manitoba for instance,
collaborative efforts between the government and post-secondary
institutions (both universities and colleges) has resulted in the
implementation of 13 Access Programs (spanning several disciplines
and program focus areas). These Access programs often place
emphasis on indigenous methods and content in the delivery of
post-secondary education and training, while also providing
students with a variety of other culturally sensitive supports
(such as elders and mentors) in order to enhance their success in
higher education. Advocates of such programs will often highlight
the fact that, between 2001/02 and 2005/06 (most recent available
data) a total of 800 students successfully graduated from these
programs with post-secondary credentials, while an average of 70.8
per cent of all students enrolled during these same years were
Aboriginal. Statistics cited according to pp. 141-143 of the
Manitoba Council on Post-Secondary Education Statistical
Compendium For the Academic Years Ending in 2006[3] According to these advocates, the inclusion
of indigenous models of education in those Access Programs that are
intended for Aboriginal learners, is an important factor
contributing to the completion of post-secondary education for the
estimated 566 Aboriginal students who would not otherwise have been
likely to achieve this same level of success.
- Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple
Intelligences
- Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979).
The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality
Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
- Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979).
Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and
practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
- Learning modality description from the Learning
Curve website
- / How the world's best school systems come out
topg
- ICT in Education
- Open University
of the United Kingdom Official website
- Indira Gandhi
National Open University Official website
- Hanushek, Economic Outcomes and School Quality
- UCLA Economics 183 Lecture from Professor Boustan
- Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The
Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical
Investigation." American Economic Review 91,no.5 (December
2001):1369-1401.
- Eric A. Hanushek, and Ludger Woessmann, "The role of cognitive
skills in economic development." Journal of Economic
Literature 46,no.3 (September 2008):607-608.
- Jacob Mincer, "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with
special reference to the human capital approach." Journal of
Economic Literature 8,no.1 (March 1970):1-26.
- See, for example, David Card, "Causal effect of education on
earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, edited by Orley
Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam: North-Holland,
1999:1801-1863; James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E.
Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects:
The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics
of Education, edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch.
Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006:307-458.
- Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist
America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic
Life (Basic Books, 1976)
- Robinson, K.: Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks,
2006, Monterrey, CA, USA.
- Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small
classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating
from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97,
214-233.
- Schofield, K. (1999). "The Purposes of Education", Queensland
State Education: 2010, [Online] URL:
www.aspa.asn.au/Papers/eqfinalc.PDF [Accessed 2002, Oct 28]
- Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006) Improving
international nurse training: an American–Italian case study.
International Nursing Review, 53(2): 110–116.
External links