Vanuatu ( or ), officially
the Republic of Vanuatu (French: République de Vanuatu,
Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu),
is an island nation located in the
South Pacific
Ocean. The archipelago,
which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and
southeast of the Solomon
Islands, near New
Guinea.
Vanuatu was first inhabited by
Melanesian
people.
Europeans began to settle in the area
in the late 18th century.
In the 1880s France and the
United
Kingdom claimed parts of the country, and in 1906 they
agreed on a framework for jointly managing the archipelago as the
New
Hebrides through a
British-French Condominium. An
independence movement arose in the 1970s, and the Republic of
Vanuatu was created in 1980.
History
The prehistory of Vanuatu is obscure; archaeological evidence
supports the commonly held theory that peoples speaking
Austronesian languages first came to
the islands some 4,000 years ago. Pottery fragments have been found
dating back to 1300–1100 B.C.E.
The first
island in the Vanuatu group discovered by Europeans was
Espiritu
Santo, when in 1606 the Portuguese explorer Pedro Fernandes de Queirós
working for the Spanish crown, spied
what he thought was a southern continent. Europeans did not
return until 1768, when
Louis Antoine de Bougainville
rediscovered the islands.
In 1774, Captain
Cook named the islands the New Hebrides, a name that lasted until
independence.
In 1825, trader
Peter Dillon's
discovery of
sandalwood on the island of
Erromango began a rush of immigrants that
ended in 1830 after a clash between immigrant Polynesian workers
and indigenous Melanesians. During the 1860s, planters in
Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of
laborers, encouraged a long-term indentured labor trade called
"
blackbirding". At the height of the
labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of
several of the Islands worked abroad. Fragmentary evidence
indicates that the current population of Vanuatu is greatly reduced
compared to pre-contact times.
It was in the 19th century that both Catholic and Protestant
missionaries arrived on the islands.
Settlers also came, looking for land on which to establish cotton
plantations. When international cotton prices collapsed, planters
switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, and, most successfully,
coconuts. Initially, British subjects from
Australia made up the majority, but the
establishment of the Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides in 1882
soon tipped the balance in favor of French subjects. By the turn of
the century, the French outnumbered the British two to one.
The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought
petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the
territory. In 1906, however, France and the United Kingdom agreed
to administer the islands jointly. Called the British-French
Condominium, it was
a unique form of government, with separate governmental systems
that came together only in a joint court. Melanesians were barred
from acquiring the citizenship of either power.
Challenges to this form of government began in the early 1940s.
The
arrival of Americans during World War II,
with their informal demeanor and relative wealth, was instrumental
in the rise of nationalism in the islands. The belief in a
mythical messianic figure named
John Frum
was the basis for an indigenous
cargo
cult (a movement attempting to obtain industrial goods through
magic) promising Melanesian deliverance. Today, John Frum is both a
religion and a political party with a member in Parliament.
The first political party was established in the early 1970s and
originally was called the New Hebrides National Party. One of the
founders was Father
Walter Lini, who
later became Prime Minister. Renamed the
Vanua'aku Pati in 1974, the party pushed for
independence; in 1980, amidst the brief
Coconut War, the Republic of Vanuatu was
created.
During the 1990s Vanuatu experienced political instability which
eventually resulted in a more decentralized government. The Vanuatu
Mobile Force, a paramilitary group, attempted a coup in 1996
because of a pay dispute. There were allegations of corruption in
the government of
Maxime Carlot
Korman. New elections have been called for several times since
1997, most recently in 2004.
Flora and fauna
Despite its tropical forests, Vanuatu has a limited number of plant
and animal species. There are no indigenous large mammals. The 19
species of native reptiles include the flowerpot snake, found only
on Efate. There are 11 species of bats (3 unique to Vanuatu) and 61
species of land and water birds. While the small Polynesian rat is
thought to be indigenous, the large species arrived with Europeans,
as did domesticated hogs, dogs, and cattle.
The region is rich in sea life, with more than 4,000 species of
marine mollusks. Coneshell and stonefish carry poison fatal to
humans.
The giant East African land snail arrived only in the 1970s but
already has spread from the Port-Vila region to Luganville.
Geography
Vanuatu is an island archipelago consisting of approximately 82
relatively small, geologically newer islands of volcanic origin (65
of them inhabited), with about north to south distance between the
outermost islands.
Two of these islands (Matthew and
Hunter) are also claimed by the French overseas department
of New
Caledonia.
Fourteen of Vanuatu's islands have surface areas of more than .
From
largest to smallest, these are Espiritu Santo, Malakula, Efate, Erromango, Ambrym, Tanna, Pentecost, Epi, Ambae or Aoba,
Vanua
Lava, Gaua, Maewo, Malo, and Anatom or
Aneityum.The nation's largest towns are the capital
Port
Vila, situated on Efate, and Luganville on Espiritu Santo. The highest point in
Vanuatu is Mount
Tabwemasana, at , on the island of Espiritu Santo.
Vanuatu's total area is (roughly ) of which its land base is very
limited (roughly ); most of the islands are steep, with unstable
soils, and little permanent freshwater. One estimate (2005) is only
9% of land is used for agriculture (7% permanent crops, 2% arable
land). The shoreline is usually rocky with fringing reefs and no
continental shelf, dropping rapidly into the ocean depths.
There are
several active volcanoes in Vanuatu, including Lopevi, as well as
several underwater ones. Volcanic activity is common with an
ever-present danger of a major eruption; a recent nearby undersea
eruption of 6.4 magnitude occurred in November 2008 with no
casualties, and an eruption occurred in 1945. Vanuatu is recognised
as a distinct
terrestrial
ecoregion, known as the
Vanuatu
rain forests.
It is part of the Australasia ecozone, which includes
New
Caledonia, the
Solomon
Islands, Australia, New Guinea, and New
Zealand.
The climate is sub-tropical with approximately nine months of warm
to hot rainy weather and the possibility of cyclones and three to
four months of cooler drier weather characterized by winds from the
southeast. The water temperature ranges from in winter to in the
summer. Cool between April and September, the days become hotter
and more humid starting in October. The daily temperature ranges
from to . Southeasterly trade winds occur from May to October.
Vanuatu has a long rainy session, with significant rainfall usually
occurring almost every month. The wettest and hottest months are
December through April, which also constitute the cyclone season.
The driest months are June through November. Rainfall averages
about per year but can be as high as in the northern islands.
Vanuatu’s relatively fast growing population (estimated at 3.6
percent annually) is placing increased pressure on local resources
for agriculture, grazing, hunting, and fishing. An alternate
estimate from 2007 suggests the population growth rate is lower at
1.5 percent annually. Some 90 percent of Ni-Vanuatu households fish
and consume fish, which has caused intense fishing pressure near
villages and the depletion of near-shore fish species. While well
vegetated, most islands also show signs of deforestation. They have
been logged (particularly of higher-value timber), subjectedto
wide-scale slash-and-burn agriculture, converted to coconut
plantations and cattle ranches, and show evidence of increased soil
erosion and landslides. Freshwater is becoming increasingly scarce
and many upland watersheds are being deforested and degraded.
Proper waste disposal and water and air pollution are also
increasingly troublesome issues around urban areas and large
villages. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities in
industry and urban areas and inaccessibility to markets have
combined to lock rural families into a subsistence or self-reliance
mode, putting tremendous pressure on local ecosystems.
Administrative divisions
Provinces of Vanuatu
Vanuatu has been divided into six
provinces
since 1994. The names in English of all provinces are derived from
the initial letters of their constituent islands:
- Malampa (Malakula, Ambrym, Paama)
- Penama (Pentecost,
Ambae, Maewo – in French: Pénama)
- Sanma (Santo,
Malo)
- Shefa (Shepherds
group, Efate – in French: Shéfa)
- Tafea (Tanna,
Aniwa, Futuna, Erromango, Aneityum – in French: Taféa)
- Torba (Torres
islands, Banks islands)
Provinces are autonomous units with their own popularly elected
local parliaments known officially as provincial councils. They
collect local taxes and make by-laws in local matters like tourism,
the provincial budget or the provision of some basic services. They
are headed by a chairman elected from among the members of the
local parliaments and assisted by a secretary appointed by the
Public Service Commission.
Their executive arm consists of a provincial government headed by
an executive officer who is appointed by the
Prime Minister with the advice of the
minister of local government. The provincial government is usually
formed by the party that has the majority in the provincial council
and, like the national government, is advised in Ni-Vanuatu culture
and language by the local council of chiefs. The provincial
president is constitutionally a member of the electoral college
that elects the
President of
Vanuatu.
The provinces are in turn divided into municipalities (usually
consisting of an individual island) headed by a council and a mayor
elected from among the members of the council.
Politics
Map of Vanuatu
Parliament of Vanuatu
has a
parliamentary
democracy political system with a written Constitution which is
currently headed by a
President
who has primarily ceremonial powers and who is elected for 5-year
terms by a two-thirds majority of an electoral college. This
electoral college consists of members of Parliament and the
presidents of Regional Councils. The President may be removed by
the electoral college for gross misconduct or incapacity. The
Prime Minister, who is the
head of government, is elected by
a majority vote of a three-fourths
quorum of
the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, appoints the Council
of Ministers, whose number may not exceed a quarter of the number
of parliamentary representatives. The prime minister and the
Council of Ministers constitute the executive government.
The
Parliament of Vanuatu is
unicameral and has 54 members who are
elected by popular vote every four years, unless earlier dissolved
by a majority vote of a three-quarters quorum or by a directive
from the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The
national Council of Chiefs, called the
Malvatu Mauri and elected by district
councils of chiefs, advises the government on all matters
concerning ni-Vanuatu culture and language.
Besides national authorities and figures, Vanuatu also has
high-placed people at the village level. Chiefs were and are still
the leading figures on village level. It has been reported that
even politicians need to oblige them. One becomes such a figure by
holding a number of lavish feasts (each feast allowing them a
higher ceremonial grade) or alternatively through inheritance (the
latter only in Polynesian-influenced villages). In northern
Vanuatu, feasts are graded through the
nimangki-system.
Government and society in Vanuatu tend to divide along linguistic
French and English lines. Forming
coalition governments, however, has
proved problematic at times due to differences between
English and
French speakers.
The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and up to three other
judges. Two or more members of this court may constitute a Court of
Appeal. Magistrate courts handle most routine legal matters. The
legal system is based on
British common
law and
French civil law. The
constitution also provides for the establishment of village or
island courts presided over by chiefs to deal with questions of
customary law.
Foreign relations and military
Vanuatu
has joined the Asian Development
Bank, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Agence de
Coopération Culturelle et Technique, la Francophonie and the Commonwealth of
Nations.
Since
1980, Australia, the United Kingdom (UK),
France, and New
Zealand have provided the bulk of Vanuatu's development
aid. Direct aid from the UK to Vanuatu ceased in 2005
following the decision by the UK to no longer focus on the Pacific.
However,
more recently new donors such as the Millennium Challenge Account
(MCA) and the People's Republic of China have been providing increased amounts of aid
funding. In 2005 the MCA announced that Vanuatu was one of
the first 15 countries in the world selected to receive support—an
amount of
US$65 million
was given for the provision and upgrading of key pieces of public
infrastructure.
Vanuatu retains strong economic and cultural ties to Australia, the
European Union (in particular France
and UK) and New Zealand. Australia now provides the bulk of
external assistance, including to the police force, which has a
paramilitary wing. Vanuatu's military consist of a small, mobile,
corps of 300 volunteers, the Vanuatu Mobile Force (VMF), which
forms part of the Vanuatu Police Force (VPF). Total military
expenditures are not available.
Economy
The four mainstays of the economy are
agriculture,
tourism,
offshore
financial services, and
cattle raising. There is substantial
fishing activity although this industry
doesn't bring in much foreign exchange. Exports include
copra,
kava, beef, cocoa, and
timber, and imports include machinery and equipment, foodstuffs,
and fuels. In contrast,
mining activity is
unsubstantial. While manganese mining halted in 1978, there was an
agreement in 2006 to export manganese already mined but not yet
exported. The country has no known
petroleum deposits. A small light-industry sector
caters to the local market.
Tax revenues come
mainly from import duties and a 12.5 percent
VAT on goods and services. Economic
development is hindered by dependence on relatively few commodity
exports, vulnerability to
natural
disasters, and long distances between constituent islands and
from main markets.
Agriculture is used primarily for
consumption as well as for export. It provides a living for 65% of
the population. In particular, production of copra and kava create
substantial revenue. Many farmers have been abandoning cultivation
of food crops, and use earnings from kava cultivation to buy food.
Kava has also been used in ceremonial exchanges between clans and
villages. Cocoa is also grown for foreign exchange. In 2007, the
number of households engaged in fishing was 15,758, mainly for
consumption (99%), and the average number of weekly fishing trips
was 3. The tropical climate enables growing of a wide range of
fruits and vegetables and spices, including banana, garlic,
cabbage, peanuts, pineapples, sugarcane, taro, yams, watermelons,
leaf spices, carrots, radishes, eggplants, vanilla (both green and
cured), pepper, cucumber, and many others. In 2007, the value (in
terms of millions of
vatu – the official
currency of Vanuatu), for agricultural products, was estimated for
different products: kava (341 million vatu), copra (195), cattle
(135), crop gardens (93), cocoa (59), forestry (56), fishing (24),
coffee (12).
Tourism brings in much-needed foreign
exchange. Tourism increased 17% from 2007 to 2008 to reach 196,134
arrivals, according to one estimate.
The 2008 total is a
sharp increase from 2000, in which there were only 57,000 visitors
(of these, 37,000 were from Australia,
8,000 from New
Zealand, 6,000 from New Caledonia, 3,000 from Europe, 1,000
from North America, 1,000 from
Japan. (Note: figures rounded to the nearest
thousand). Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the
site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality
TV series
Survivor
was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled
Survivor: Vanuatu—Islands of Fire.
Two years later, Australia's
Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the
same location used by the U.S. version. In mid-2002, the government
stepped up efforts to boost tourism.
Financial services are an
important part of the economy. Vanuatu is a
tax haven that until 2008 did not release account
information to other governments or law-enforcement agencies.
International pressure, mainly from Australia, influenced the
Vanuatu government to begin adhering to international norms to
improve transparency. In Vanuatu, there is no
income tax,
withholding tax,
capital gains tax,
inheritance tax, or exchange control. Many
international ship-management companies choose to flag their ships
under the Vanuatu flag, because of the tax benefits and favorable
labor laws (Vanuatu is a full member of the
International Maritime
Organization and applies its international conventions).
Several file-sharing groups, such as the providers of the
KaZaA network of
Sharman
Networks and the developers of
WinMX, have
chosen to incorporate in Vanuatu to avoid regulation and legal
challenges. In response to foreign concerns the government has
promised to tighten regulation of its
offshore financial centre.
Vanuatu
receives foreign aid mainly from
Australia and New Zealand.
Cattle raising leads to beef
production for export. One estimate in 2007 for the total value of
cattle heads sold was 135 million vatu; cattle were first
introduced into the area from Australia by British planter James
Paddon. On average, each household has 5 pigs and 16 chickens, and
while cattle are the "most important livestock", pigs and chickens
are important for subsistence agriculture as well as playing a
significant role in ceremonies and customs (especially pigs). There
are 30 commercial farms (sole proprietorships (37%), partnerships
(23%), corporations (17%), with revenues of 533 million vatu and
expenses of 329 million vatu in 2007.
Earthquakes can negatively affect
economic activity on the island nation.
A severe earthquake
in November 1999, followed by a tsunami,
caused extensive damage to the northern island of Pentecote, leaving thousands homeless. Another
powerful earthquake in January 2002 caused extensive damage in the
capital, Port Vila, and surrounding areas, and was also followed by
a tsunami. Another earthquake of 7.2 struck on 2 August 2007.
The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) released their 2007
agricultural census in 2008. According to the study, agricultural
exports make up about three-quarters (73%) of all exports; 80% of
the population lives in rural areas where "agriculture is the main
source of their livelihood"; and of these households, almost all
(99%) engaged in agriculture, fisheries and forestry. Total annual
household income was 1,803 millions of
vatu. Of
this income, agriculture grown for their own household use was
valued at 683 million vatu, agriculture for sale at 561, gifts
received at 38, handicrafts at 33, fisheries (for sale) at 18. The
largest expenditure by households was food 300 million vatu,
followed by household appliances and other necessities (79 million
vatu), transportation (59), education and services (56), housing
(50), alcohol and tobacco (39), clothing and footwear (17). Exports
were valued at 3,038 million vatu, and included copra (485), kava
(442), cocoa (221), beef (fresh and chilled) (180), timber (80),
fish (live fish, aquarium, shell, button) (28). Total imports of
20,472 million vatu included industrial materials (4,261), food and
drink (3,984), machinery (3,087), consumer goods (2,767), transport
equipment (2,125), fuels and lubricants (187) and other imports
(4,060). There are substantial numbers of crop gardens – 97,888 in
2007 – many on flat land (62%), slightly hilly slope (31%), and
even on steep slopes (7%); there were 33,570 households with at
least one crop garden, and of these, 10.788 households sold some of
these crops over a twelve month period..
The economy grew about 6% in the early 2000s. This is higher than
in the 1990s, when
GDP rose
less than 3%, on average.
One report from the Manila-based
Asian Development Bank about
Vanuatu's economy gave mixed reviews. It noted the economy was
"expanding", noting that the economy grew at an impressive 5.9%
rate from 2003 to 2007, and lauded "positive signals regarding
reform initiatives from the government in some areas" but described
certain binding constraints such as "poor infrastructure services".
Since a private monopoly generates power, "electricity costs are
among the highest in the Pacific" among developing countries. The
report also cited "weak governance and intrusive interventions by
the State" which reduced productivity.
Demographics
Vanuatu has a population of 221,506. Males outnumber females; in
1999, according to the Vanuatu Statistics Office, there were 95,682
males and 90,996 females. Infant mortality has declined
precipitously during the last half of the twentieth century, from
123 deaths per 100,000 population in 1967 to only 25 per 100,000 in
1999.
The
population is predominantly rural, although Port Vila and Luganville have populations in the tens of thousands.
The inhabitants of Vanuatu, or
Ni-Vanuatu, are in the majority (98.5%) of
Melanesian descent, with the remainder
made up of a mix of Europeans, Asians and other Pacific islanders.
Three islands were historically colonized by
Polynesians.
About 2,000
Ni-Vanuatu live and work in New Caledonia. In 2006 the
New Economics Foundation and
Friends of the Earth
environmentalist group published the
Happy Planet Index which analysed data on
levels of reported
happiness,
life expectancy and
Ecological Footprint and
estimated Vanuatu to be the most ecologically efficient country in
the world in achieving high well-being.
There are three official languages:
English,
French, and
Bislama.
Bislama is a
pidgin language, and now a
creole in urban areas, which
essentially combines a typically Melanesian grammar with a mostly
English vocabulary. It is the only language that can be understood
and spoken by the majority of Vanuatu's population as a
second language. In addition 113 indigenous
languages are stillactively
spoken in Vanuatu. The density of languages, per capita, is the
highest of any nation in the world with an average of only 2000
speakers per language. All of these vernacular languages belong to
the
Oceanic branch of the
Austronesian family.
Christianity is the predominant
religion in Vanuatu, consisting
of several denominations. The
Presbyterian Church, adhered to by about
one third of the population, is the largest of them.
Roman Catholic and
Anglican are other common denominations, each
claiming about 15% of the population. Others are the
Seventh-day Adventist Church,
the
Church of Christ,
Neil Thomas Ministries (NTM), as well
as many other religious sects and denominations. Because of the
modernities that the military in
World War
II brought with them when they came to the islands, several
cargo cults developed.
Many died out, but
the John Frum cult on Tanna is still
large, and has adherents in the parliament. Also on Tanna is
the
Prince Philip Movement,
which reveres the United Kingdom's
Prince
Philip. Villagers of the
Yaohnanen
tribe believed in an ancient story about the pale-skinned son of a
mountain spirit venturing across the seas to look for a powerful
woman to marry. Prince Philip, having visited the island with his
new wife
Queen
Elizabeth, fit the description exactly and is therefore revered
and even held as a god around the isle of Tanna.
Culture
Vanuatu culture retains a strong diversity through local regional
variations and through foreign influence. Vanuatu may be divided
into three major cultural regions. In the north, wealth is
established by how much one can give away. Pigs, particularly those
with rounded
tusks, are considered a symbol of
wealth throughout Vanuatu. In the centre, more traditional
Melanesian cultural systems dominate. In the south, a system
involving grants of title with associated privileges has
developed.
Young men undergo various coming-of-age ceremonies and rituals to
initiate them into manhood, usually including
circumcision.
Most villages have a
nakamal or
village clubhouse which serves as a meeting point for men and as a
place to drink
kava. Villages also
have male and female-only sections. These sections are situated all
over the villages; in
nakamals, special spaces are
provided for females when they are in their menstruation
period.
The traditional
music of Vanuatu is
still thriving in the rural areas of Vanuatu. Musical instruments
consist mostly of
idiophones: drums of
various shape and size,
slit gongs, as
well as
rattle, among others.
Another musical genre that has become widely popular during the
20th century in all areas of Vanuatu, is known as
string band music. It combines
guitars,
ukulele, and popular
songs.
More recently the music of Vanuatu, as an industry, grew rapidly in
the 1990s and several bands have forged a distinctive ni-Vanuatu
identity. Popular genres of modern commercial music, which are
currently being played in town include
zouk
music and
reggaeton. Reggaeton, a
variation of hip-hop rapped in
Spanish
language, played alongside its own distinctive beat, is
especially played in the local nightclubs of Vanuatu with, mostly,
an audience of Westerners and tourists.
There are few prominent ni-Vanuatu authors.
Women's rights activist
Grace Mera Molisa, who died in 2002,
achieved international notability as a descriptive poet.
Cricket is very popular in Vanuatu, with its
own
national team.
There are 8000 registered cricketers. There is also some
rugby union played in Vanuatu. Sport
varies depending on the gender of those involved.
Volleyball is considered a 'girls' sport' and
males play
soccer.
The
cuisine of Vanuatu (
aelan
kakae) incorporates
fish, root vegetables
such as
taro and
yams, fruits, and vegetables. Most island
families grow food in their gardens, and food shortages are rare.
Papayas,
pineapples,
mangoes,
plantains, and
sweet potatoes are abundant through much of
the year.
Coconut milk and
cream are used to flavor many dishes. Most
food is cooked using hot stones or through boiling and steaming;
very little food is fried.
Health and education
On the whole, Vanuatu is a healthy place to live. One of the major
problems for the local population is
malaria.
A 2006
New Economics Foundation study designated Vanuatu the world's
happiest nation, with Costa
Rica at second place, based on a study which looked at
consumption levels, life expectancy, and happiness. But a
reporter reading this report wrote "the World’s Happiness measure
was meant to raise awareness that excessive consumption doesn’t
deliver happiness" and wondered whether the designation was biased.
He visited the island nation in 2009 and noted, along with good
points, significant problems, including a food riot which had
happened earlier that year, vacant land with litter, a trend
towards deforestation, polluted rivers and streams, extensive
foreign ownership of prime land in the capital city, land
speculation, overdevelopment, and poverty.
In
Port
Vila, and three other centres, are locations of the
University of the South
Pacific, an educational institution co-owned by twelve Pacific
countries. The campus in Port Vila, known as the Emalus
Campus, houses the University's law school.
2009 Earthquakes
Several
moderate to major earthquakes affected
the vicinity of Vanuatu and also of Santa Cruz Islands between October 7 and 8 2009. The first
earthquake struck at 2203
UTC on October 7 2009
and measured 7.6
Mw. A
tsunami warning was issued for 11
countries throughout the region although this was canceled within
two hours after only a minor tsunami formed.
The
Vanuatu earthquakes occurred on (or near) the boundary of the Australia Plate and the Pacific Plate,
and occurred mostly at a depth of 35 kilometers (22 miles).
This boundary region is among the most seismically active areas in
the world.
The initial earthquake was re-designated as a foreshock because it
was followed by a shock of 7.8 magnitude 15 minutes later in the
same area. Moderate
aftershocks occurred
and those with magnitude 6.0 or higher are listed below (there were
a dozen ranging from 5.0 to 5.8 within the 12 hours following the
initial event). Shocks with magnitude 7.0 or higher are highlighted
in light blue and the main shock of 7.8 is highlighted in dark
blue.
Date
(YYYY-MM-DD) |
Time
(UTC) |
Latitude |
Longitude |
Depth |
Magnitude |
Ref |
2009-10-07 |
22:03:15 |
13.052° S |
166.187° W |
|
7.6 (Mw) |
[5810] |
2009-10-07 |
22:18:26 |
12.554° S |
166.320° W |
|
7.8 (Mw) |
[5811] |
2009-10-07 |
23:13:49 |
13.145° S |
166.297° W |
|
7.3 (Mw) |
[5812] |
2009-10-08 |
02:12:39 |
11.650° S |
166.170° W |
|
6.6 (Mw) |
[5813] |
2009-10-08 |
08:28:49 |
13.298° S |
165.951° W |
|
6.8 (Mw) |
[5814] |
2009-10-08 |
08:34:38 |
12.276° S |
166.448° W |
|
6.5 (Mw) |
[5815] |
2009-10-08 |
21:16:12 |
12.879° S |
166.200° W |
|
6.2 (Mw) |
[5816] |
See also
Further reading
- Atlas du Vanouatou (Vanuatu), 2009,
(1re édition), 392 p., by Patricia Siméoni, Port-Vila, Éditions Géo-consulte
- Arts of Vanuatu by Joel Bonnemaison
- Birds of the Solomons, Vanuatu & New Caledonia by
various
- Birds of Vanuatu by Heinrich L. Bregulla
- Cavorting With Cannibals: An Exploration of Vanuatu by
Rick Williamson
- Diving and Snorkeling Guide to Vanuatu by various
- Ethnology of Vanuatu : An Early Twentieth Century
Study by Felix Speiser
- Gender, Christianity and Change in Vanuatu: An Analysis of
Social Movements in North Ambrym by Annelin Erikson
- Getting Stoned with Savages: A Trip Through the Islands of
Fiji and Vanuatu by J. Maarten Troost
- House-girls Remember: Domestic Workers in Vanuatu by
various
- Language Planning and Policy in the Pacific, vol.
1: Fiji, the Philippines, and Vanuatu by various
- Lonely Planet Guide: Vanuatu & New Caledonia by
various
- The Other Side: Ways of Being and Place in Vanuatu by
John Patrick Taylor
- Pentecost: An island in Vanuatu by Genevieve
Mescam
- Power of Perspective: Social Ontology and Agency on Ambrym
Island, Vanuatu by Knut Mikjel Rio
- Unfolding the Moon: Enacting Women's Kastom in Vanuatu
by Lissant Bolton
- Women in Vanuatu: Analyzing Challenges to Economic
Participation by various
- Women of the Place: Kastom, Colonialism and Gender in
Vanuatu by Margaret Jolly
References
- "Background Note: Vanuatu". U.S.
Department of State (April 2008). This article incorporates
text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- The Peace Corps Welcomes You to
Vanuatu. Peace Corps (May 2007). This article
incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- Loneley Planet:Vanuatu
- Lonely Planet:Vanuatu
- Fifty facts about the Duke of Edinburgh 25 January
2002
- http://www.south-images.com/photos-melanesia.htm Customs
dances and ceremonies in Vanuatu, photolibrary
South-Images
- Vanuatu announce major sponsor - Beyond the Test
World at Cricinfo at blogs.cricinfo.com
External links
- Government
- General information