Example chemical structure of
coal
Coal is a readily
combustible black or brownish-black
sedimentary rock normally occurring in
rock strata in
layers or veins
called
coal beds. The harder forms, such as
anthracite coal, can be regarded as
metamorphic rock because of later
exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. It is composed
primarily of
carbon along with variable
quantities of other elements, chiefly
sulfur,
hydrogen,
oxygen and
nitrogen.
Coal starts as layer upon layer of annual
plant remains accumulating slowly that were protected
from
biodegradation by usually
acidic covering waters that gave a natural
antiseptic effect combating
microorganisms and then later
mud deposits protecting against
oxidization in the widespread shallow seas
mainly during the
Carboniferous
period thus trapping atmospheric
carbon in the ground in immense
peat bogs that eventually were covered over and deeply buried
by sediments under which they
metamorphosed into coal. Over time, the
chemical and
physical properties
of the plant remains (believed to mainly have been
fern-like species antedating more modern plant and
tree species) were changed by geological action
to create a solid material.
Coal, a
fossil fuel, is the largest
source of energy for the
generation of electricity worldwide,
as well as one of the largest worldwide
anthropogenic sources of
carbon dioxide emissions. Gross
carbon dioxide
emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those from
petroleum and about double the amount from
natural gas. Coal is extracted from the
ground by
mining, either underground or
in
open pits.
Types of coal
As geological processes apply
pressure to
dead
biotic matter over time, under
suitable conditions it is transformed successively into
- Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a
fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its
dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and
oil spills on land and water.
- Lignite, also referred to as brown coal,
is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for
electric power generation. Jet is a
compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been
used as an ornamental stone since the Iron
Age.
- Sub-bituminous coal, whose
properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal
are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.
Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
- Bituminous coal, dense mineral,
black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of
bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric
power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat
and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
- Anthracite, the highest rank; a
harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and
commercial space heating. It may be
divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and
petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
- Graphite, technically the highest rank,
but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is
mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.
The classification of coal is generally based on the content of
volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between
countries. According to the German classification, coal is
classified as follows:
Name |
Volatiles % |
C Carbon % |
H Hydrogen % |
O Oxygen % |
S Sulfur % |
Heat content kJ/kg |
Braunkohle (Lignite) |
45-65 |
60-75 |
6.0-5.8 |
34-17 |
0.5-3 |
<28470 |
Flammkohle (Flame coal) |
40-45 |
75-82 |
6.0-5.8 |
>9.8 |
~1 |
<32870 |
Gasflammkohle (Gas flame coal) |
35-40 |
82-85 |
5.8-5.6 |
9.8-7.3 |
~1 |
<33910 |
Gaskohle (Gas coal) |
28-35 |
85-87.5 |
5.6-5.0 |
7.3-4.5 |
~1 |
<34960 |
Fettkohle (Fat coal) |
19-28 |
87.5-89.5 |
5.0-4.5 |
4.5-3.2 |
~1 |
<35380 |
Esskohle (Forge coal) |
14-19 |
89.5-90.5 |
4.5-4.0 |
3.2-2.8 |
~1 |
<35380 |
Magerkohle (Non baking coal) |
10-14 |
90.5-91.5 |
4.0-3.75 |
2.8-3.5 |
~1 |
35380 |
Anthrazit (Anthracite) |
7-12 |
>91.5 |
<3.75 |
<2.5 |
~1 |
<35300 |
Percent by weight |
The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive
transition from the English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous
coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to
anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has 6%
volatiles).
Cannel coal (sometimes called "candle
coal"), is a variety of fine-grained, high-rank coal with a large
amount of hydrogen. It consists primarily of "
exinite" macerals, now termed "liptinite".
Early use
Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (2000–3000 years BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres. The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area 4000 BC where Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite, but it was not until the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) that coal was also used for fuel. In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD". Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villa and military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily-accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found.
There is no evidence that the product was of great importance in
Britain before the
High Middle
Ages, after about AD 1000.
Mineral coal came to
be referred to as "seacoal," probably because it came to many
places in eastern England, including London, by
sea. This is accepted as the more likely explanation for the
name than that it was found on beaches, having fallen from the
exposed
coal seams above or washed out of
underwater coal seam outcrops. These easily accessible sources had
largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by
the 13th century, when underground mining from
shafts or
adits was
developed.
In London there is still a Seacoal Lane and a
Newcastle Lane (from the coal-shipping city of Newcastle) where in the seventeenth century coal was unloaded
at wharves along the River
Fleet. An alternative name was "pitcoal," because
it came from mines. It was, however, the development of the
Industrial Revolution that led
to the large-scale use of coal, as the
steam engine took over from the
water wheel.
Uses today
Coal as fuel
Coal is primarily used as a solid
fuel to
produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal
consumption was about 6,743,786,000
short
tons in 2006 and is expected to increase 48% to 9.98 billion
short tons by 2030.
China
produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006.
India produced
about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from
coal. The USA consumes about 14% of the world total, using 90% of
it for generation of electricity.
When coal is used for
electricity
generation, it is usually pulverized and then combusted
(burned) in a
furnace with a
boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to
steam, which is then used to spin
turbines which turn
generator and create electricity. The
thermodynamic efficiency of
this process has been improved over time. "Standard" steam turbines
have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35%
thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process, although newer
combined cycle plants can reach efficiencies as high as 58%.
Increasing the combustion temperature can boost this efficiency
even further. Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered"
plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels
of
waste heat. About 40% of the world's
electricity comes from coal, and approximately 49% of the United
States electricity comes from coal. The emergence of the
supercritical turbine concept envisions
running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with
projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized increases in
temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher
efficiencies.
Other efficient ways to use coal are
combined cycle power plants,
combined heat and power cogeneration, and
an MHD topping
cycle.
Approximately 40% of the world electricity production uses coal.
The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies,
including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e.,
lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. However,
consumption is increasing and
maximal
production could be reached within decades (see
World Coal Reserves, below).
A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity
production would be via
solid-oxide fuel cells or
molten-carbonate fuel cells (or
any oxygen ion transport based
fuel cells
that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume
oxygen), which would be able to get 60%–85% combined efficiency
(direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine). Currently these
fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are
also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have
to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible
with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is
pulverized coal in a gas carrier, such as
nitrogen. Another option is
coal
gasification with water, which may lower fuel cell voltage by
introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, but may
also greatly simplify
carbon
sequestration. However, this technology has been criticised as
being inefficient, slow, risky and costly, while doing nothing
about total emissions from mining, processing and combustion.
Another
efficient and clean way of coal combustion in a form of coal-water slurry fuel (CWS) was well
developed in Russia (since the Soviet Union time). CWS significantly reduces emissions
saving the heating value of coal.
Coking and use of coke
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash,
low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are
driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as
high as 1,000 °C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual
ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as
a
reducing agent in smelting
iron ore in a
blast
furnace. The product is too rich in dissolved carbon, and must
be treated further to make
steel. The coke
must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the
blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making
steel by the conventional route. However, the alternative route to
is
direct reduced iron, where
any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised
iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating
value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking
processes produce valuable by-products that include
coal tar,
ammonia, light
oils, and "
coal gas".
Petroleum coke is the solid residue
obtained in
oil refining, which
resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in
metallurgical applications.
Ethanol production
The
reaction of coal and natural gas was used by a German manufacturer
for Buna rubber: Chemische Werke Huls, at
Marl,
Germany, and AVCO Corp in the US. Consequently
several references had described both Huls Arc Process and AVCO
rotating arc reactor.Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, Acetylene, 5
th Ed., Vch Pub,
1987.Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk and Othmer,
4
th Ed., Acetylene, Wiley-Interscience, 2004 ISBN
9780471485223. Both reactors are of cylindrical shape and have a
rotating
electric arc. The
cathode is at the cylinder axis, while the
anode is on the circumference. As
methane gas provided the highest yield, then it is
forced with coal powder into a
vortex passing
through the electric arc for few milliseconds.
Huls Arc Process produced a mixture of
acetylene and ethylene gases. The reaction
conditions can be varied to determine the needed product.
Increasing the Specific Energy Requirement (SER) favor acetylene
production, and lower SER is for ethylene:
Enthalpy Change for Ethylene:Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
6
th Ed., Robert Perry and Don Green, McGraw Hill,
Section 3, 1984. = 127.34 kJ/mol, while for acetylene: = 301.4
kJ/mol. As a consequence, recent production processes are using
conventional heating instead of electric arc.
Hydration of ethylene gas producing ethanol is the most important
process for ethanol production. Vapor phase process is the
preferred oneEncyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk and Othmer,
Ethanol, 4
th Ed., Wiley-Interscience, 2004. in which
ethylene and steam pass over a
catalyst.
One of the most accepted catalyst is
diatomite impregnated with
phosphoric acid.
Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to produce
syngas, a mixture of
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H
2) gas. This syngas can then be converted into
transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the
Fischer-Tropsch process. Currently,
this technology is being used by the
Sasol
chemical company of
South Africa to
make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the
hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for
various purposes such as powering a
hydrogen economy, making ammonia,
or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam
(
water vapor) while also being heated
and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules
oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO)
while also releasing hydrogen (H
2) gas. This process has
been conducted in both
underground coal mines and in
coal
refineries.
- (Coal) + O2 + H2O → H2 +
CO
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected
at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If
hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed
into the
water gas shift
reaction where more hydrogen is liberated.
- CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased
interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as
gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The
Synthetic Fuels
Corporation was a U.S. government-funded corporation
established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported
fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was
discontinued in 1985.
In the past, coal was converted to make
coal
gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination,
heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used
instead.
Liquefaction
Coal can also be converted into
liquid
fuels like
gasoline or
diesel by several different processes. In the
direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either
hydrogenated or
carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the
Bergius process, the SRC-I and
SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes and the NUS Corporation
hydrogenation process. In the process of low temperature
carbonization coal is coked at temperatures
between and . These temperatures optimize the production of coal
tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal
tar is then further processed into fuels. Alternatively, coal can
be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the
Fischer-Tropsch process. An
overview of coal liquefaction and its future potential has been
done by others
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO
2)
emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction is done
without employing either
carbon capture and storage
technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle
greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those
released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production
from
crude oil. If CCS technologies are
employed, reductions of 5-12% can be achieved in CTL plants and up
to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with
commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight)
in CBTL plants. For most future
synthetic
fuel projects,
Carbon
dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into
the atmosphere. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost of
production. Currently all US and at least one Chinese synthetic
fuel projects, are including sequestration in their process
designs.
Refined coal
Refined coal is the product of a coal upgrading technology that
removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such
as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals.[1] It is one form of
several pre-combustion treatments and processes for coal that alter
coal's characteristics before it is burned. The goals of
pre-combustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and
reduce emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the
situation, pre-combustion technology can be used in place of or as
a supplement to post-combustion technologies to control emissions
from coal-fueled boilers.
Coal as a traded commodity
The price of coal has gone up from around $30 per
short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton
as of September 26, 2008. As of October 31, 2008, the price per
short ton has declined to $111.50.
In North
America, a Central Appalachian coal futures
contracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading
unit is per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per
ton. Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in
the United States, coal futures contracts provide coal producers
and the
electric power
industry an important tool for
hedging and
risk
management.
In addition to the NYMEX contract, the
IntercontinentalExchange has
European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures
available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is ,
and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton.
Cultural usage
Coal is
the official
state mineral of Kentucky and the official
state rock of Utah. Both
U.S. states have a historic link to coal
mining.
Some cultures uphold that children who misbehave will receive only
a lump of coal from
Santa Claus for
Christmas in their
stocking
instead of presents.
It is also customary and lucky in Scotland to give coal as a gift
on New Year's Day. It happens as part of
First-Footing and represents warmth for the year
to come.
Environmental effects
Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil
Plant coal fly ash slurry spill site taken the day after the
event
There are a number of adverse environmental effects of
coal mining and burning, specially in
power stations.
These effects include:
- Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and global warming according to the IPCC. Coal is the
largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in
the air.
- Generation of hundred of millions of tons of waste products,
including fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge,
that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy
metals
- Acid rain from high sulfur coal
- Interference with groundwater and
water table levels
- Contamination of land and waterways and
destruction of homes from fly ash spills such as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry
spill
- Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact
on other land-uses
- Dust nuisance
- Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging
infrastructure
- Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are
one of the largest sources of human-caused background radiation exposure
- Coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in
the United States, including 2,800 from lung
cancer.
- Coal-fired power plant releases emissions including mercury,
selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the
environment.
Economic aspects
Coal liquefaction is one of the
backstop technologies that could
potentially limit escalation of oil prices and
mitigate the effects of transportation energy
shortage that will occur under
peak oil.
This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity becoming
large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for
petroleum. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from
coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal
becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per
barrel, (break-even cost). With oil prices as low as around USD 40
per barrel in the U.S. as of December 15, 2008, liquid coal lost
some of its economic allure in the US, but will probably be
re-vitalized, similar to
oil sand projects,
with an oil price around 70$ per barrel.
In China, due to an increasing need for liquid energy in the
transportation sector, coal liquefaction were given high priority
even during periods of oil prices below 40$ per barrel . This is
probably because China prefers not to be dependent on foreign oil,
and instead utilize their enormous domestic coal reserves. As oil
prices were increasing during the first half of 2009, the coal
liquefaction projects in China were again boosted, and these
projects are profitable with an oil barrel price of 40$.
Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal
liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams
and Larson (2003).
Intensive research and project developments have been implemented
from 2001. The
World CTL Award is granted to personalities
having brought eminent contribution to the understanding and
development of Coal liquefaction. The 2009 presentation ceremony
will take place in Washington DC (USA) at the
World CTL 2009
Conference (25-27 March, 2009).
Energy density
The
energy density of coal, i.e. its
heating value, is roughly 24
megajoules per
kilogram.
The energy density of coal can also be expressed in
kilowatt-hours for some unit of mass, the units
that electricity is most commonly sold in, to estimate how much
coal is required to power electrical appliances. One kilowatt-hour
is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of coal is 6.67 kW·h/kg. The
typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about 30%,
so of the 6.67 kW·h of energy per kilogram of coal, 30% of
that—2.0 kW·h/kg—can successfully be turned into electricity;
the rest is waste heat. So coal power plants obtain approximately
2.0 kW·h per kilogram of burned coal.
As an example, running one 100 watt lightbulb for one year requires
876 kW·h (100 W × 24 h/day × 365 {days in a year} = 876000 W·h
= 876 kW·h). Converting this power usage into physical coal
consumption:
- \frac{876 \ \mathrm{kW \cdot h}}{2.0 \ \mathrm{kW} \cdot
\mathrm{h/kg}} = 438 \ \mathrm{kg \ of \ coal} = 966 \
\mathrm{pounds \ of \ coal}
It takes 438 kg (966 lb) of coal to power a computer for
one full year.A similar result, using a
light bulb instead, see
One should also take into account
transmission and distribution losses
caused by resistance and heating in the
power lines, which is in the
order of 5–10%, depending on distance from the power station and
other factors.
Carbon intensity
Commercial coal has a carbon content of at least 70%. Coal with a
heating value of 6.67 kWh per kilogram as quoted above has a carbon
content of roughly 80%, which is
- \frac{0.8 \ \mathrm{kg}}{\mathrm{12} \cdot \mathrm{kg/kmol}} =
\frac{2}{30} \ \mathrm{kmol} , where 1 mol equals to NA (Avogadro
Number) atoms.
Carbon combines with oxygen in the atmosphere during combustion,
producing carbon dioxide, with an atomic weight of (12 + 16 × 2 =
44 kg/kmol). The CO
2 released to air for each
kilogram of incinerated coal is therefore
- \frac{2}{30} \ \mathrm{kmol} \cdot \frac{44 \
\mathrm{kg}}{\mathrm{kmol}} = \frac{88}{30} \ \mathrm{kg} \approx
2.93 \ \mathrm{kg}.
This can be used to calculate an
emission factor for CO
2 from the
use of coal power. Since the useful energy output of coal is about
30% of the 6.67 kWh/kg(coal), the burning of 1 kg of coal
produces about 2 kWh of electrical energy. Since 1 kg coal
emits 2.93 kg CO
2, the direct CO
2
emissions from coal power are 1.47 kg/kWh, or about
0.407 kg/MJ.
The U.S. Energy Information Agency's 1999 report on CO
2
emissions for energy generation,
CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the
Generation of Electric Power in the United States, DOE, EPA,
1999. quotes a lower emission factor of 0.963 kg
CO
2/kWh for coal power. The same source gives factor for
oil power in the U.S. of 0.881 kg CO
2/kWh, while
natural gas has 0.569 kg CO
2/kWh. Estimates for
specific emission from
nuclear power,
hydro, and
wind energy vary, but are
about 100 times lower, see
environmental
effects of nuclear power.
Underground fires
Most underground fires are caused by the mineral
marcasite. chemical formula FeS2, it is
chemically, the same as
pyrite (fool's gold)
but structurally complex. Marcasite and pyrite very commonly occur
in association with coal beds. these minerals form the source of
the sulphur which occurs within the coal. Marcasite is highly
unstable at pressures and temperatures close to the earths surface.
due to its unstable nature, it may react spontaneously, consuming
itself and releasing heat. In the event that sufficient heat is
generated and coal occurs close by, the coal may be set alight
underground and such a blaze may go on burning for tens to hundreds
of years.
There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world. Those
burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be
extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their
combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the
surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on
fire by
spontaneous
combustion or contact with a
mine fire
or surface fire. A
grass fire in a coal
area can set dozens of coal seams on fire. Coal fires in China burn
109 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons
of CO
2. This contradicts the ratio of 1:1.83 given
earlier, but it amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production
of CO
2 from
fossil fuels, or
as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the
United States.
In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the
Coal Region of the United States) an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a
trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned
anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish
the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to
this day.
The Australian
Burning
Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the
smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning
for over 5,500 years.
At Kuh i
Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of
years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique
minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once
used this method to mine
ammoniac. This
place has been well-known since the time of
Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted
the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active
volcanism in
Turkestan (up
to the 19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area).
The
reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the
Powder River
Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also
may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria". Clinker is rock that has been fused
by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin
approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past
three million years. Wild coal fires in the area were reported by
the
Lewis and Clark
Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.
Production trends
Coal output in 2005
A coal mine in Wyoming, United
States.
The United States has the world's largest coal reserves.
In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38% share followed
by the USA and India, reports the
British Geological Survey.
World coal reserves
At the end of 2006 the recoverable coal reserves amounted around
800 or 900
gigatons. The United States
Energy Information
Administration gives world reserves as 930 billion short tons
(equal to 843 gigatons) as of 2006. At the current extraction rate,
this would last 132 years. However, the rate of coal consumption is
annually increasing at 2-3% per year and, setting the growth rate
to 2.5% yields an exponential depletion time of 56 years (in 2065).
At the current global total energy consumption of 15.7 terawatts,
there is enough coal to provide the entire planet with all of its
energy for 37 years (assuming 0% growth in demand and ignoring
transportation's need for liquid fuels).
The 930 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated
by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,116
BBOE (billion
barrels of oil
equivalent). The amount of coal burned during 2007 was
estimated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion
BTU's. In terms of heat content, this is about 57 million barrels
of oil equivalent per day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas
provided 51 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, while oil
provided 85.8 million
barrels per
day.
British Petroleum, in its annual report 2007,
estimated at 2006 end, there were 909,064 million tons of
proven coal reserves worldwide, or 147 years
reserves-to-production ratio.
This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven";
exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in
under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In
many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been
sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven". However, some nations
haven't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the
same levels even with withdrawals.
Continental United States coal
regions
Of the three fossil fuels coal has the most widely distributed
reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all
continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the
USA, Russia, Australia, China, India and South Africa.
Note the table below.
Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2006
(million tonnes (teragrams))
Country |
Bituminous & anthracite |
SubBituminous & lignite |
TOTAL |
Share |
|
111,338 |
135,305 |
246,643 |
27.1 |
|
49,088 |
107,922 |
157,010 |
17.3 |
|
62,200 |
52,300 |
114,500 |
12.6 |
|
90,085 |
2,360 |
92,445 |
10.2 |
|
38,600 |
39,900 |
78,500 |
8.6 |
|
48,750 |
0 |
48,750 |
5.4 |
|
16,274 |
17,879 |
34,153 |
3.8 |
|
28,151 |
3,128 |
31,279 |
3.4 |
|
14,000 |
0 |
14,000 |
1.5 |
|
0 |
10,113 |
10,113 |
1.1 |
|
183 |
6,556 |
6,739 |
0.7 |
|
6,230 |
381 |
6,611 |
0.7 |
|
3,471 |
3,107 |
6,578 |
0.7 |
|
2,094 |
3,458 |
5,552 |
0.6 |
|
740 |
4,228 |
4,968 |
0.5 |
|
278 |
3,908 |
4,186 |
0.5 |
|
0 |
3,900 |
3,900 |
0.4 |
|
198 |
3,159 |
3,357 |
0.4 |
|
0 |
3,050 |
3,050 |
0.3 |
|
4 |
2,183 |
2,187 |
0.2 |
|
0 |
1,354 |
1,354 |
0.1 |
|
860 |
351 |
1,211 |
0.1 |
|
300 |
300 |
600 |
0.1 |
|
33 |
538 |
571 |
0.1 |
|
200 |
330 |
530 |
0.1 |
|
502 |
0 |
502 |
0.1 |
|
22 |
472 |
494 |
0.1 |
|
479 |
0 |
479 |
0.1 |
All others |
4,691 |
24,111 |
28,802 |
3.2 |
TOTAL |
478,771 |
430,293 |
909,064 |
100 |
- Recent discoveries of lignite in the Thar region of Pakistan
have given rise to additional reserves of nearly 185 billion
tonnes.
Major coal producers
The reserve life is an estimate based only on current production
levels for the countries shown, and makes no assumptions of future
production or even current production trends.
Production of Coal by Country and year (million
tonnes)
Country |
2003 |
2004 |
2005 |
2006 |
Share |
Reserve Life (years) |
|
1722.0 |
1992.3 |
2204.7 |
2380.0 |
38.4 % |
48 |
|
972.3 |
1008.9 |
1026.5 |
1053.6 |
17.0 % |
234 |
|
375.4 |
407.7 |
428.4 |
447.3 |
7.2 % |
207 |
|
351.5 |
366.1 |
378.8 |
373.8 |
6.0 % |
210 |
|
276.7 |
281.7 |
298.5 |
309.2 |
5.0 % |
508 |
|
237.9 |
243.4 |
244.4 |
256.9 |
4.1 % |
190 |
|
204.9 |
207.8 |
202.8 |
197.2 |
3.2 % |
34 |
|
114.3 |
132.4 |
146.9 |
195.0 |
3.1 % |
25 |
|
163.8 |
162.4 |
159.5 |
156.1 |
2.5 % |
90 |
|
Total World |
5187.6 |
5585.3 |
5886.7 |
6195.1 |
100 % |
142 |
If continuous growth in usage at the rate of the years 2003 to 2006
from the table above (6.0948% pa compound) is assumed, reserves
would be exhausted in 31 years.
Major coal exporters
Exports of Coal by Country and year (million short
tons)
Country |
2003 |
2004 |
2005 |
Share |
|
238.1 |
247.6 |
257.6 |
32.0% |
|
107.8 |
131.4 |
147.6 |
13.4% |
|
103.4 |
95.5 |
79.0 |
9.8% |
|
78.7 |
74.9 |
77.5 |
9.6% |
|
41.0 |
55.7 |
62.3 |
.7.7% |
|
43.0 |
48.0 |
49.9 |
6.2% |
|
27.7 |
28.8 |
31.0 |
3.9% |
|
16.4 |
16.3 |
16.4 |
2.0% |
|
N/A |
10.3 |
14.1 |
1.8% |
|
Total |
713.9 |
764.0 |
804.2 |
100% |
See also
References
Further reading
External links