A country has an absolute advantage if its output per unit of input of all goods and services produced is higher than that of another country. 

aggregate

Any total (e.g., the gross national product; the sum of
monthly sales).

Corporation chartered by a state to engage in international banking: so named because the corporation enters into an “agreement” with the Fed's Board of Governors that it will limit its activities to those permitted an Edge Act Corporation. Typically organized as a subsidiary of a bank, an agreement corporation may conduct activities abroad that are permissible to foreign banks abroad but that may not otherwise be permissible for U.S. banks.

The process of fully paying off indebtedness by installments of principal and earned interest over a definite time.

The cost of credit on a yearly basis expressed as a percentage.

The charge for estimating the value of property offered as security.

Electronic clearing and settlement system for exchanging electronic credit and debit transactions among participating depository institutions; such electronic transactions are substitutes for paper checks and are typically used to make recurring payments such as payroll or loan payments. The Federal Reserve Banks operate an automated clearinghouse, as do some private-sector firms.

automated teller machine (ATM)

Computer-controlled terminals located on the premises of financial institutions or elsewhere, through which customers may make deposits, withdrawals, or other transactions as they would through a bank teller. Other terms sometimes used to describe such terminals are customer-bank communications terminal (CBC) and remote service unit (RSU). Groups of banks sometimes share ATM networks located throughout a region of the country that may include portions of several states.

A depositor's savings account from which funds may be transferred automatically to the same depositor's checking account to cover a check written or to maintain a minimum balance.

B

An accounting statement of the money value of international transactions between one nation and the rest of the world over a specific time period. The statement shows the sum of transactions of individuals, businesses and government agencies located in one nation, against those of all other nations.

That part of a nation's balance of payments dealing with imports and exports, that is trade in goods and services, over a given period. If exports of goods exceed imports, the trade balance is said to be favorable; if imports exceed exports, the trade balance if said to be unfavorable.

A large extra payment that may be charged at the end of a loan or lease.

International organization established in 1930 and based in Basel, Switzerland, that serves as a forum for central banks for collecting information, developing analyses, and cooperating on a wide range of policy-related matters; also provides certain financial services to central banks.

Company that owns, or has controlling interest in, one or more banks. The Board of Governors is responsible for regulating and supervising bank holding companies, even if the bank owned by the holding company is under the primary supervision of a different federal agency (the Comptroller of the Currency or the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation).

A term used synonymously with paper money or currency issued by a bank. Notes are, in effect, a promise to pay the bearer on demand the amount stated on the face of the note. Today, only the Federal Reserve Banks are authorized to issue bank notes, i.e. Federal Reserve notes, in the United States.

Actions to make and issue rules and regulations and enforce those rules and other laws governing the structure and conduct of banking.

A series of unexpected cash withdrawals caused by a sudden decline in depositor confidence or fear that the bank will be closed by the chartering agency, i.e. many depositors withdraw cash almost simultaneously. Since the cash reserve a bank keeps on hand is only a small fraction of its deposits, a large number of withdrawals in a short period of time can deplete available cash and force the bank to close and possibly go out of business.

Oversight of individual banks to ensure that they are operated prudently and in accordance with applicable statutes and regulations.

Bankers acceptances are negotiable time drafts, or bills of exchange, that have been accepted by a bank which, by accepting, assumes the obligation to pay the holder of the draft the face amount of the instrument on the maturity date specified. They are used primarily to finance the export, import, shipment or storage of goods.

An electronic communications network owned by an association of banks and used to transfer messages between subscribing banks. Bankwire also offers a clearing service called Cashwire that includes a settlement facility.

An international committee of bank supervisors, associated with the BIS, that is headquartered in Basel, Switzerland, and is composed of bank supervisors from Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Eight times a year, prior to FOMC meetings, each Federal Reserve Bank gathers anecdotal information on current economic conditions in its District through reports from Bank and Branch directors and interviews with key businessmen, economists, market experts and other sources. The Beige Book summarizes this information by District and sector.

Central governmental agency of the Federal Reserve System, located in Washington, D.C., and composed of seven members who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Board, with other components of the System, has responsibilities associated with the conduct of monetary policy, the supervision and regulation of certain banking organizations, the operation of much of the nation's payments system, and the administration of many federal laws that protect consumers in credit transactions. The Board supervises the Federal Reserve Banks.

Securities that are recorded in electronic records, called book entries, rather than as paper certificates. Ownership of U.S. government book-entry securities is transferred over Fedwire. (See definitive securities.)

Any person, other than a bank, engaged in the business of buying or selling securities on its own behalf or for others.

Money borrowed by brokers from banks for uses such as financing specialists' inventories of stock, financing the underwriting of new issues of corporate and municipal securities, and financing customer margin accounts.

The agency of the U.S. government that prints, and makes available for circulation, new Federal Reserve Notes.

A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables.

A lump sum payment made to the creditor by the borrower or by a third party to reduce the amount of some or all of the consumer's periodic payments to repay the indebtedness.

C

Informal name for quarterly Reports of Condition and Income.

The percentage of the economy's total plant and equipment that is currently in production. Usually, a decrease in this percentage signals an economic slowdown, while an increase signals economic expansion.

In banking, the funds invested in a bank that are available to absorb loan losses or other problems and therefore protect depositors. Capital includes all equity and some types of debt. Bank regulators have developed two definitions of capital for supervisory purposes: tier 1 capital, which can absorb losses while a bank continues operating, and tier 2 capital, which may be of limited life and may carry an interest obligation or other characteristics of a debt obligation, and therefore provides less protection to depositors than tier 1 capital.

The market in which corporate equity and longer-term debt securities (those maturing in more than one year) are issued and traded. (See money market.)

U.S. paper currency plus coin. 

An order issued after notice and opportunity for hearing, requiring a depository institution, a holding company or a depository institution official to terminate unlawful, unsafe or unsound banking practices. Cease-and-desist orders are issued by the appropriate federal regulatory agencies under the Financial Institutions Supervisory Act and can be enforced directly by the courts.

The principal monetary authority of a nation, which performs several key functions, including conducting monetary policy to stabilize the economy and level of prices. The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States.

The buying or selling of currency, foreign or domestic, by central banks in order to influence market conditions or exchange rate movements.

A form of time deposit at a bank or savings institution which cannot be withdrawn before a specified maturity date without being subject to an interest penalty for early withdrawal. Small-denomination CDs are often purchased by individuals. Large CDs of $100,000 or more are often in negotiable form, meaning they can be sold or transferred among holders before maturity.

The Check 21 Act (effective Oct. 28, 2004) facilitates truncation through expanded use of electronic processing technologies to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of the nation’s check collection system. The law provides for a new negotiable paper instrument called a substitute check, which can be used in place of the original paper check without an agreement. This allows paper items to be truncated early in the collection or return process, with image cash letters replacing paper cash letters.

The movement of a check from the depository institution at which it was deposited back to the institution on which it was written, the movement of funds in the opposite direction, and the corresponding credit and debit to the accounts involved. Check clearing also encompasses the return of a check (for insufficient funds, for example) from the bank on which it was written to the bank at which it was deposited, and the corresponding movement of funds. The Federal Reserve Banks operate a nationwide check-clearing system.  

An institution where mutual claims are settled between accounts of member depository institutions. Clearinghouses among banks have traditionally been organized for check-clearing purposes, but more recently have cleared other types of settlements, including electronic fund transfers.

An automated clearing system used primarily for international payments. This system is owned and operated by the New York Clearinghouse banks and engages Fedwire for settlement.

An agreement in which advanced credit plus any finance charges are expected to be repaid in full over a definite time. Most real estate and automobile loans are closed-end agreements.

Property that is offered to secure a loan or other credit and that becomes subject to seizure on default. (Also called security.)

Bank that offers a variety of deposit accounts, including checking, savings, and time deposits, and extends loans to individuals and businesses. Commercial banks can be contrasted with investment banking firms, which generally are involved in arranging for the sale of corporate or municipal securities, and broker-dealer firms, which buy and sell securities for themselves and others. See savings bank.

commodity prices

An index of commodities (such as oil and steel) traded in worldwide markets.

Enacted by Congress in 1977, the CRA encourages banks to help meet the credit needs of their communities for housing and other purposes, particularly in neighborhoods with low or moderate incomes, while maintaining safe and sound operations.

A situation in which a country, individual, company or region can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than that of a competitor.

One of two categories of bidders on Treasury securities: competitive and noncompetitive. Competitive bidders are usually financial institutions.

See Office of the Comptroller of the Currency.

A grouping of corporations to fulfill a combined objective or project that usually requires interbusiness cooperation and sharing of the goods.

Group, created under the Federal Reserve Act, composed of thirty members who represent the interests of a broad range of consumers and creditors. The council meets with the Board of Governors three times a year on matters concerning consumers and the consumer protection laws administered by the Board.

A measurement of the cost of living determined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

A bank that accepts deposits of and performs banking services for other depository institutions.

A term referring to a person, other than the principal borrower, who signs for a loan. The cosigner(s) assumes equal liability for the loan.

The promise to pay in the future in order to buy or borrow in the present. The right to defer payment of debt.

Any card, plate or coupon book that may be used repeatedly to borrow money or buy goods and services on credit.

A record of how a person has borrowed and repaid debt.

A statistical system used to determine whether to grant credit by assigning numerical scores to various characteristics related to creditworthiness.

Financial cooperative organization whose membership consists of individuals who have a common bond, such as place of employment or residence or membership in a labor union. Credit unions accept deposits from members, pay interest (in the form of dividends) on the deposits out of earnings, and use their funds mainly to provide consumer installment loans to members.

A creditor's measure of a consumer's past and future ability and willingness to repay debts.

Paper money that consists mainly of Federal Reserve notes. Other types of currency that were once issued by the United States include silver certificates, United States notes, and national bank notes.

An increase in the value of one currency relative to another currency. Appreciation occurs when, because of a change in exchange rates, a unit of one currency buys more units of another currency.

A decline in the value of one currency relative to another currency. Depreciation occurs when, because of a change in exchange rates, a unit of one currency buys fewer units of another currency.

A deliberate downward adjustment in the official exchange rate established, or pegged, by a government against a specified standard, such as another currency or gold.

A deliberate upward adjustment in the official exchange rate established, or pegged, by a government against a specified standard, such as another currency or gold.

The difference between the nation's total exports of goods, services and transfers and its total imports of them. Current account balance calculations exclude transactions in financial assets and liabilities.

Unemployment caused by a low level of aggregate demand associated with recession in the business cycle.

D

Also known as a “daylight trade.� The purchase and sale or the short sale and cover of the same security in a margin account on the same day.

A negative balance in an institution’s Federal Reserve Bank account at any time during the operating hours of the Fedwire Funds Service.

A schedule used to determine the timing of debits and credits to an institution’s Federal Reserve Bank account for various transactions processed by the Reserve Banks.

A card that resembles a credit card but which debits a transaction account (checking account) with the transfers occurring contemporaneously with the customer's purchases. A debit card may be machine readable, allowing for the activation of an automated teller machine or other automated payments equipment.

Failure to meet the terms of a credit agreement.

The amount each year by which government spending is greater than government income.

Securities that are recorded on engraved paper certificates and payable to the bearers or to specific, registered owners. (See book-entry securities.)

A deposit that may be withdrawn at any time without prior written notice to the depository institution. A checking account is the most common form of demand deposit.

Maximum interest rates that can be paid on savings and time deposits at federally insured commercial banks, mutual savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions. Ceilings on credit union deposits are established by the Depository Institutions Deregulation Committee (DIDC). By law, deposit interest rate ceilings were phased out over a six-year period, ending in 1986 under the oversight of the DIDC.

Financial institution that makes loans and obtains its funds mainly through accepting deposits from the public; includes commercial banks, savings and loan associations, savings banks, and credit unions. 

Depository Institutions Deregulation Committee (DIDC)

The Committee responsible for the orderly phase-out over a six-year period of interest rate ceilings on time and savings accounts at depository institutions. Voting members of the DIDC are the Secretary of the Treasury and the chairmen of the Federal Reserve Board, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Federal Home Loan Bank Board, and National Credit Union Administration Board. The Comptroller of the Currency serves as a non-voting member.

An Act which requires that all banks and all institutions that accept deposits from the public make periodic reports to the Federal Reserve System. Starting in September 1981, the Fed charged banks for a range of services that it had provided free in the past, including check clearing, wire transfer of funds, and the use of automated clearinghouse facilities.

A financial instrument whose value depends upon the characteristics and value of an underlying commodity, currency, or security.

A method of payment which electronically credits your checking or savings account.

A type of floating exchange rate that is not completely freely floating because central banks intervene from time to time to alter the rate from its free-market level. It is still a floating rate because it has not been pegged at a predetermined par value.

The difference between the face value and the price paid for a security.

Officially the primary credit rate, it is the interest rate at which an eligible depository institution may borrow funds, typically for a short period, directly from a Federal Reserve Bank. The law requires that the board of directors of each Reserve Bank establish the discount rate every fourteen days, subject to review and determination by the Board of Governors.

Figurative expression for the Federal Reserve facility that extends credit directly to eligible depository institutions (those subject to reserve requirements); so named because, in the early days of the Federal Reserve System, bankers would come to a Reserve Bank teller window to obtain credit.

• primary credit
  Credit extended to generally sound depository institutions at a rate above the target federal funds rate on a very short-term basis as a backup source of funding.
  
• seasonal credit
  Credit extended by a Federal Reserve Bank to depository institutions that have difficulty raising funds in national money markets to help meet temporary needs for funds resulting from regular, seasonal fluctuations in loans and deposits. The interest rate charged is based on market rates.
  
• secondary credit
  Credit extended to depository institutions ineligible for primary credit, at a rate above the primary credit rate, either on a very short-term basis (when consistent with a timely return to market sources funds) or for a longer term (to facilitate the orderly resolution of serious financial difficulties).

E

A prediction of future economic trends of key economic indicators.

An increase in the nation's capacity to produce goods and services.

Events that impact the economy, come from outside it, and are unexpected and unpredictable (e.g., Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the rise in oil prices by OPEC).

Corporation chartered by the Federal Reserve to engage in international banking. The Board of Governors acts on applications to establish Edge Act corporations and also examines the corporations and their subsidiaries. Typically organized as a subsidiary of a bank, an Edge Act corporation may conduct activities abroad that are permissible to foreign banks abroad but that may not otherwise be permissible to U.S. banks. Named after Senator Walter Edge of New Jersey, who sponsored the original legislation to permit formation of such organizations. (See agreement corporation.).

A service offered free by the U.S. Department of the Treasury to help business and individual taxpayers conveniently pay all their federal taxes electronically.

Transfer of funds electronically rather than by check or cash. The Federal Reserve's Fedwire and automated clearinghouse services are EFT systems..

A variety of systems and technologies for transferring funds (money) electronically rather than by check. This includes Fedwire, automated clearinghouses (ACHs), and other automated systems..

The percentage of the labor force that is employed. The employment rate is one of the economic indicators that economists examine to help understand the state of the economy. See also unemployment rate.

The rate that would be consistent with the full employment of labor and industrial capacity, and with real GDP being at its long-run potential level. This rate is needed as a benchmark to judge whether a given real interest rate is expansionary or contractionary.

Dollar-denominated deposits in banks and other financial institutions outside the United States; includes deposits at banks not only in Europe, but in all parts of the world.

Amount of funds held by an institution in its account at a Federal Reserve Bank in excess of its required reserve balance and its contractual clearing balance.

The price of the currency of one nation in terms of the currency of another nation.

A security that is exempted from most provisions of the securities laws, including the margin rules. Such securities include U.S. government and agency securities, and municipal securities designated by the SEC.

A policy to increase governmental expenditures and/or to decrease taxes. See also fiscal policy.

A policy of the Federal Reserve System that is designed to expand the growth of money and credit in the economy. See also monetary policy.

F

Fannie Mae (the Federal National Mortgage Association) is one of the three federally-sponsored enterprises charged with providing funding and expanding access to the housing-finance market. In addition to purchasing loans directly from mortgage banks and other lenders, Fannie Mae also guarantees pools of mortgages against default, thereby making the secondary mortgage market more liquid.

Advisory group made up of one representative (in most cases a banker) from each of the twelve Federal Reserve Districts. Established by the Federal Reserve Act, the council meets periodically with the Board of Governors to discuss business and financial conditions and to make recommendations.

An independent deposit insurance agency created by Congress in 1933 to maintain stability and public confidence in the nation's banking system. The FDIC promotes safety and soundness of insured depository institutions and the U.S. financial system by identifying, monitoring and addressing risks to the deposit insurance funds; minimizes disruptive effects from the failure of banks and savings associations; and ensures fairness in the sale of financial products and the provision of financial services.

Short-term transactions in immediately available funds—between depository institutions and certain other institutions that maintain accounts with the Federal Reserve—that involve lending balances at the Federal Reserve; usually not collateralized..

Rate charged by a depository institution on an overnight loan of federal funds to another depository institution; rate may vary from day to day and from bank to bank.

The agency of the federal government that supervises all federal savings and loan associations and federally insured state-chartered savings and loan associations. The FHLBB also operates the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation, which insures accounts at federal savings and loan associations and those state-chartered associations that apply and are accepted. In addition, the FHLBB directs the Federal Home Loan Bank System, which provides a flexible credit facility for member savings institutions to promote the availability of home financing. The FHL Banks also own the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, established in 1970 to promote secondary markets for mortgages.

A broker's demand upon a customer for cash, or securities needed to satisfy the required Regulation T down payment for a purchase or short sale of securities.

Twelve-voting-member committee made up of the seven members of the Board of Governors; the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York; and, on a rotating basis, the presidents of four other Reserve Banks. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion. The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in Washington, D.C., to set the nation’s monetary policy. It also establishes policy relating to System operations in the foreign exchange markets.

Federal legislation, enacted in 1913, that established the Federal Reserve System.

The amount of funds held by a depository institution in its account at its Federal Reserve Bank.

One of the twelve operating arms of the Federal Reserve System, located throughout the nation, that together with their Branches carry out various System functions, including providing payment services to depository institutions, distributing the nation’s currency and coin, supervising and regulating member banks and bank holding companies, and serving as fiscal agent for the U.S. government.

One of the twelve geographic regions served by a Federal Reserve Bank.

Float is credit that appears on the books of the depository institution of both the check writer (the payor) and the check receiver (the payee) while a check is being processed. Federal Reserve float is present during the Federal Reserve Banks’ check-clearing process. To promote efficiency in the payments system and provide certainty about the date that deposited funds will become available to the receiving depository institution (and the payee), the Federal Reserve Banks credit the accounts of banks that deposit checks according to a fixed schedule. However, processing certain checks and collecting funds from the banks on which these checks are written may take more time than the schedule allows. Therefore, the accounts of some banks may be credited before the Federal Reserve Banks are able to collect payment from other banks, resulting in Federal Reserve float.

Paper currency issued by the Federal Reserve Banks. Nearly all the nation’s circulating currency is in the form of Federal Reserve notes, which are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, a bureau of the U.S. Department of the Treasury. Federal Reserve notes are obligations of the Federal Reserve Banks and legal tender for all debts.

The central bank of the United States, created by the Federal Reserve Act and made up of a seven-member Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and Branches of the Federal Reserve Banks.

Electronic funds transfer network operated by the Federal Reserve Banks. It is usually used to transfer large amounts of funds from one institution’s account at the Federal Reserve to another institution’s account. It is also used by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, other federal agencies, and government-sponsored enterprises to collect and disburse funds. 

Money that has little or no intrinsic value as a commodity; it is costless to produce, usually taking the form of tokens or pieces of paper; and is not redeemable for any commodity.

The total dollar amount paid to obtain credit.

A bank holding company that has met the capital, managerial, and other requirements to take advantage of the expanded affiliations allowed under the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act.

Institution that uses its funds chiefly to purchase financial assets, such as loans or securities (as opposed to tangible assets, such as real estate). Financial institutions can be separated into two major groups according to the nature of the principal claims they issue: (1) depository institutions (also called depository intermediaries), such as commercial banks, savings and loan associations, savings banks, and credit unions, which obtain funds largely by accepting deposits from the public and (2) nondepositories (sometimes called nondepository intermediaries), such as life insurance and property–casualty insurance companies and pension funds, whose claims are the policies they sell or their promise to provide income after retirement.

Services performed by the Federal Reserve Banks for the U.S. government and other organizations, including maintaining accounts for the U.S. Department of the Treasury, paying checks and making electronic payments on behalf of the Treasury, and selling and redeeming marketable Treasury securities and savings bonds.

Federal government policy regarding taxation and spending, set by Congress and the President.

Exchange rates between currencies that are set at predetermined levels and don't move in response to changes in supply and demand.

A traditional approach to determining the finance charge payable on an extension of credit. A predetermined and certain rate of interest is applied to the principal.

Arrangements in which the rate of exchange between countries’ currencies (the foreign exchange rate) is allowed to fluctuate in response to market forces of supply and demand.

Transactions in the foreign exchange markets involving the purchase of the currency of one nation with that of another. Also called foreign exchange transactions.

The foreign exchange trading desk at the New York Federal Reserve Bank. The desk undertakes operations in the exchange markets for the account of the Federal Open Market Committee, and as agent for the U.S. Treasury and for foreign central banks.

Price of the currency of one nation in terms of the currency of another nation.

A type of foreign exchange transaction whereby a contract is made to exchange one currency for another at a fixed date in the future at a specified exchange rate. By buying or selling forward exchange, businesses protect themselves against a decrease in the value of a currency they plan to sell at a future date.

Freddie Mac (the Federal National Home Loan Mortgage Corporation) is another federally-sponsored secondary-market agency. Like Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac both purchases loans directly from the primary mortgage market and guarantees loans that are sold on the secondary market.

Short-term joblessness associated with mobility. A person who leaves a job to find something better is considered frictionally unemployed. This type of unemployment characterizes workers subject to seasonal work (e.g., construction, agricultural, winter recreational workers, etc.).

Federal legislation that, among other things, specifies the primary objectives of U.S. economic policy—maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.

Contracts that require delivery of a commodity of specified quality and quantity, at a specified price, on a specified future date. Commodity futures are traded on a commodity exchange and are used for both speculation and hedging.

G

A variant form of the gold standard under which a country pegged the value of its currency to the value of the currency of a “major” country, e.g. sterling or dollars, which was itself on a gold standard. The international monetary regime in force between 1958 and 1970 is frequently described as a “gold exchange standard” system because of the wide use of the dollar, itself pegged to gold, as a reserve currency and as an accepted medium of exchange internationally.

A monetary system in which currencies are defined in terms of a given weight of gold.

Securities issued by the U.S. Treasury or federal agencies.

Repayment terms calling for gradual increases in the payments on a closed-end obligation. A graduated payment loan usually involves negative amortization.

Federal legislation that allowed affiliations among banks, securities firms, and insurance companies under a financial holding company structure. The act reaffirmed the Federal Reserve’s role as “umbrella supervisor” over organizations that control banks, while also requiring that bank regulators and functional regulators supervise subsidiaries within a financial holding company.

Total value of goods and services produced by labor and property located in the United States during a specific period.  

A country's total output of goods and services from all forms of economic activity measured at market prices for a calendar year.

H

Informal name for the Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978, from the names of the act's original sponsors.

I

A rate of increase in the general price level of all goods and services.

The return expressed in percentages earned on an investment each year. These payments are issued every six months based on an annual rate.

Rate of interest paid on deposits and other investments determined by the interaction of the supply and demand for funds in the money market.

An intermediate target is a variable (such as the money supply) that is not directly under the control of the central bank, but that does respond fairly quickly to policy actions, is observable frequently and bears a predictable relationship to the ultimate goals of policy.

Specially designated activities of a bank located in the United States that are treated as those of an offshore bank by U.S. regulatory authorities. Dollar deposits in such a facility are considered to be Eurodollars.

International organization established for lending funds to member nations to promote international monetary cooperation among nations, to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to finance temporary balance-of-payments deficits, usually in conjunction with macroeconomic adjustment programs.

J

An arrangement by which a group of currencies maintain a fixed relationship relative to each other, but move jointly relative to another currency in response to supply and demand conditions in the exchange market.

K

An economic theory originated by the British economist John Maynard Keynes and his followers. Keynes maintained that governments should use the power of the budget to maintain economic growth and stability and overcome the recessionary cycles common in most western economies.

The interest rate that controls, either directly or indirectly, bank lending rates and the cost of credit paid by borrowers.

L

As the nation's central bank, the Federal Reserve has the authority and financial resources to act as “lender of last resort” by extending credit to depository institutions or to other entities in unusual circumstances involving a national or regional emergency, where failure to obtain credit would have a severe adverse impact on the economy.

Quality that makes an asset easily convertible into cash with relatively little loss of value in the conversion process. Sometimes used more broadly to encompass cash and credit in hand and promises of credit to meet needs for cash.

In banking, the risk that a depository institution will not have sufficient cash or liquid assets to meet the claims of depositors and other creditors.

Interest rates on loan contracts—or debt instruments such as Treasury bonds or utility, industrial, or municipal bonds—having maturities greater than one year. Often called capital market rates.

M

Measure of the U.S. money stock that consists of currency held by the public, travelers checks, demand deposits and other checkable deposits.

Measure of the U.S. money stock that consists of M1, savings deposits (including money market deposit accounts), time deposits in amounts of less than $100,000, and balances in retail money market mutual funds. Excludes individual retirement account (IRA) and Keough balances at depository institutions and retail money funds.

Measure of the U.S. money stock that consists of M2, time deposits of $100,000 or more at all depository institutions, repurchase agreements in amounts of $100,000 or more, Eurodollars, and balances held in institutional money market mutual funds.

The study of economics in terms of whole systems with reference to general levels of output and income and to the interrelations among sectors of the economy. See also microeconomics.

Buying on margin refers to buying stocks or securities with borrowed money (usually borrowed from a brokerage firm or bank). The margin requirement is the minimum amount (expressed as a percentage) the buyer must put up (rather than borrow). The Federal Reserve Board sets margin requirements.

Any stock listed on a national securities exchange, any over-the-counter security approved by the SEC for trading in the national market system, or appearing on the Board's list of over-the-counter margin stock and most mutual funds.

Rates of interest determined by the interaction of the supply of and demand for funds in freely functioning markets.

An agreement in which the Federal Reserve sells a security outright for immediate delivery to a dealer or foreign central bank, with an agreement to buy the security back on a specific date (usually within 7 days) at the same price. Matched sale-purchase agreements are the reverse of repurchase agreements and allow the Federal Reserve to withdraw reserves on a temporary basis.

Depository institution that is a member of the Federal Reserve System. All national banks are automatically members of the System;
state-chartered banks may choose to apply to join the System.

Metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas (metro and micro areas) are geographic entities defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) for use by Federal statistical agencies in collecting, tabulating, and publishing Federal statistics.

microeconomics

The study of economics in terms of individual areas of activity (as a firm, household or prices). See also macroeconomics.

An Act which requires that all banks and all institutions that accept deposits from the public make periodic reports to the Federal Reserve System. Starting in September 1981, the Fed charged banks for a range of services that it had provided free in the past, including check clearing, wire transfer of funds, and the use of automated clearinghouse facilities.

A central bank’s actions to influence the availability and cost of money and credit, as a means of helping to promote national economic goals. Tools of monetary policy include open market operations, direct lending to depository institutions, and reserve requirements.

Anything that serves as a generally accepted medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a means of saving or storing purchasing power. In the United States, currency (the bulk of which is Federal Reserve notes) and coin as well as funds in deposit accounts at depository institutions are examples of money.

Figurative expression for the informal network of dealers and investors over which short-term debt securities are purchased and sold. Money market securities generally are highly liquid securities that mature in less than one year, often less than ninety days. (See capital market.)

The amount of money (coins, paper currency, and checking accounts) that is in circulation in the economy.

The risk that a party to a transaction has not entered into a contract in good faith, has provided misleading information about its assets, liabilities or credit capacity, or has an incentive to take unusual risks in a desperate attempt to earn a profit before the contract settles.

An international policy intended to free international trade from the restrictions of bilateralism. Multilateralism represents an effort to permit nations to specialize in production and exchange in accordance with the principle of comparative advantage.

Savings bank owned by its depositors (contrasted with a stock savings bank, which issues common stock to the public).

N

A self-regulatory organization with jurisdiction over certain broker-dealers. The NASD requires member brokers to register and conducts examinations for compliance with net capital requirements and other regulations. It also conducts market surveillance of the over-the-counter (OTC) securities market. National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations (NASDAQ) is a subsidiary of the NASD which facilitates the trading of approximately 5,000 most active OTC issues through an electronically connected network.

An automated information network that provides brokers and dealers with price quotations on securities traded over the counter.

An independent federal agency that supervises and insures both federal and state-chartered credit unions. NCUA is entirely funded by credit unions and receives no tax dollars.

The rate of unemployment attainable without stimulating an increase in the inflation rate.

An increase in the principal of a loan, when the loan payments are insufficient to pay the interest due. The unpaid interest is added to the outstanding loan balance causing the principal to increase rather than decrease as payments are made. This situation typically occurs in an adjustable mortgage with an annual cap limiting any increases in the interest rate, and also in a graduated payment mortgage, which has low initial payments so moderate-income borrowers can afford to make the loan payments.

An interest-earning account on which checks may be drawn. Withdrawals from NOW accounts may be offered by commercial banks, mutual savings banks, and savings and loan associations and may be owned only by individuals and certain nonprofit organizations and governmental units.

Current stated rates of interest paid or earned.

State-chartered commercial bank that is not a member of the Federal Reserve System.

A depository institution (commercial bank, mutual savings bank, savings and loan association, credit union, or U.S. agency or branch of a foreign bank) that is not a member of the Federal Reserve System. Nonmember depository institutions that offer transaction accounts or nonpersonal time deposits are subject to reserve requirements set by the Federal Reserve, and have access to the Federal Reserve discount window and Federal Reserve services on the same terms as member banks.

O

A bureau of the Treasury Department, established in August 1989. OTS has the authority to charter federal thrift institutions and serve as the primary regulator of approximately 2,000 federal and state-chartered thrifts.

open-end credit

A line of credit that may be used repeatedly up to a certain limit. Also called a charge account or revolving credit.

A lease that may involve a balloon payment based on the value of the property when it is returned. Also called finance lease.

Purchases and sales of securities, typically U.S. Treasury securities, in the open market, by the Open Market Trading Desk at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as directed by the Federal Open Market Committee, to influence interest rates. Purchases increase the supply of Federal Reserve balances to depository institutions; sales do the opposite.

A debt security not traded on the national securities exchange, which meets certain Regulation T requirements as to size of original offering, available information and status of interest payments. See also over the counter (OTC).

A checking account associated with a line of credit that allows a person to write checks for more than the actual balance in the account, with a finance charge on the overdraft.

Figurative term for the means of trading securities that are not listed on an organized stock exchange such as the New York Stock Exchange. Over-the-counter trading is done by broker-dealers who communicate by telephone and computer networks.

P

The full face value of a security.

payments system

Financial activities closely related to banking that may be engaged in by bank holding companies (BHCs), either directly or through nonbank subsidiaries. For example, a BHC might own finance companies or engage in mortgage banking. The Federal Reserve Board determines which activities are closely related to banking. Before making such activities permissible, the Board must determine that performance of the activities by bank holding companies is in the public interest.

In reference to a loan, points consist of a lump sum payment made by the borrower at the outset of the loan period. Generally, each point equals one percent of the loan amount. See also seller's points.

The level of real GDP(gross domestic product) that can be sustained in the long run and that is consistent with constant inflation.

The amount by which the auction price of a bill, note, or bond is higher than its face value.

The amount of physical output for each unit of productive input.

A theory by which the exchange rate between any two currencies adjusts to reflect changes in the price levels within the two countries.

Credit used for the purpose of buying, carrying or trading in securities.

R

GDP (gross domestic product) adjusted for inflation. Real GDP provides the value of GDP in constant dollars, which is used as an indicator of the volume of the nation's output.

Interest rates adjusted for the expected erosion of purchasing power resulting from inf lation. Technically defined as nominal interest rates minus the expected rate of inf lation.

A significant decline in general economic activity extending over a period of time.

reciprocal currency (swap) arrangements

Short-term reciprocal arrangements between a Federal Reserve Bank and individual foreign central banks. By drawing on a swap the foreign central bank obtains dollars that can be used to conduct foreign exchange intervention in support of its currency or to lend to its domestic banking system to satisfy temporary liquidity demands. For the duration of the swap, the Federal Reserve Bank obtains an equivalent amount of foreign currency along with a commitment from the foreign central bank to repurchase the foreign currency at a preset exchange rate.

A Federal Reserve check processing operation that clears checks drawn on depository institutions located within a specified area. RCPCs expedite collection and settlement of checks within the area on an overnight basis.

A type of variable rate involving a renewable short-term “balloon” note. The interest rate on the loan is generally fixed during the term of the note, but when the balloon comes due, the lender may refinance it at a higher rate. In order for the loan to be fully amortized, periodic refinancing may be necessary.

Quarterly financial report that all banks, savings and loan associations, Edge and agreement corporations, and certain other types of organizations must file with a federal regulatory agency. Informally called a Call Report.

A transaction in which the Federal Reserve enters into an agreement with a primary dealer to acquire securities from the dealer for a specified principal amount at an agreed-upon interest rate and to return the securities on a specified future date. The maturity date may be the next day or many days later, with the maximum length set by the FOMC. These transactions permit the Federal Reserve to increase the supply of Federal Reserve balances for the length of the agreement.

Funds that a depository institution is required to maintain in the form of vault cash or, if vault cash is insufficient to meet the requirement, in the form of a balance maintained directly with a Reserve Bank or indirectly with a pass-through correspondent bank. The required amount varies according to the required reserve ratios set by the Board and the amount of reservable liabilities held by the institution.

That portion of its required reserves that a depository institution must hold in an account at a Federal Reserve Bank. This portion is the difference between the institution’s reserve requirement and its vault cash.

A depository institution's vault cash (up to the level of its required reserves) plus balances in its reserve account (not including funds applied to its required clearing balance).

S

Historically, depository institution that accepted deposits mainly from individuals and invested heavily in residential mortgage loans; although still primarily residential lenders, S&Ls now have many of the powers of commercial banks.

Depository institution historically engaged primarily in accepting consumer savings deposits and in originating and investing in residential mortgage loans; now may offer checking-type deposits and make a wider range of loans. See commercial bank.

Paper certificates (definitive securities) or electronic records (book-entry securities) evidencing ownership of equity (stocks) or debt obligations (bonds).

An independent, nonpartisan, quasi-judicial regulatory agency with responsibility for administering the federal securities laws. The purpose of these laws is to protect investors and to ensure that investors have access to disclosure of all material information concerning publicly traded securities. The Commission also regulates firms engaged in the purchase or sale of securities, people who provide investment advice, and investment companies.

The property or a portion of property offered as security.

The profit which results from the difference between the cost of making coins and currency and the exchange value of coin and currency in the market.

Associations of broker-dealers or others that have responsibility, under the oversight of the Securities and Exchange Commission, to regulate their own members through the adoption and enforcement of rules of conduct for fair, ethical, and efficient practices. Examples include the National Association of Securities Dealers and the New York Stock Exchange.

In reference to a loan, seller's points consist of a lump sum paid by the seller to the buyer's creditor to reduce the cost of the loan to the buyer. This payment is either required by the creditor or volunteered by the seller, usually in a loan to buy real estate. Generally, one point equals one percent of the loan amount. See also points.

A component of some finance charges, such as the fee for triggering an overdraft checking account into use.

Interest rates on loan contracts—or debt instruments such as Treasury bills, bank certificates of deposit or commercial paper—having maturities of less than one year. Often called money market rates.

Type of international reserve asset created by the International Monetary Fund and allocated, on occasion, to the nations that are members of the IMF.

A foreign exchange transaction in which each party promises to pay a certain amount of currency to the other on the same day or within one or two days.

A bank that is chartered by a state and has elected to join the Federal Reserve System.

Long-term joblessness caused by shifts in the economy. Often structural unemployment occurs because of changes in technology.

An extra charge imposed on those who purchase with a credit card instead of cash. (Currently, surcharges for credit card purchases are prohibited.)

An agreement between two parties to exchange cash flows of underlying securities. For example, in an interest rate swap, the most common type of swap, one party agrees to pay a fixed interest rate in return for receiving a variable rate from the other party.

See reciprocal currency (swap) arrangements.

T

An application or offer to purchase a U.S. Treasury bill, note or bond.

A general term encompassing savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions.

Group established by the Board of Governors to obtain information and opinions on the needs and problems of thrift institutions. Made up of representatives of savings and loan associations, savings banks, and credit unions.

Government practices that protect large banking organizations from the normal discipline of the marketplace because of concerns that such institutions are so important to markets and their positions so intertwined with those of other banks that their failure would be unacceptably disruptive, financially and economically.

The amount by which merchandise imports exceed merchandise exports.

The value of the dollar pegged to, or expressed relative to, a market basket of selected foreign currencies. The Federal Reserve calculates a trade-weighted value of the dollar based on the weighted-average exchange value of the dollar against the currencies of 10 industrial countries.

A checking account or similar deposit account from which transfers of funds can be made. Demand deposit accounts, NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) accounts, and credit union share draft accounts are examples of transaction accounts.

Percentage of the labor force that is unemployed and actively seeking a job.

Obligations of the U.S. government issued by the U.S. Department of the Treasury as a means of borrowing money to meet government expenditures not covered by tax revenues. All marketable Treasury securities have a minimum purchase amount of $1,000 and are issued in $1,000 increments. There are three types of marketable Treasury securities: bills, notes, and bonds.

• Treasury bill (T-bill)
  Short-term U.S. Treasury security having a maturity of up to one year. T-bills are sold at a discount. Investors purchase a bill at a price lower than the face value (for example, the investor might buy a $10,000 bill for $9,700); the return is the difference between the price paid and the amount received when the bill is sold or it matures (if held to maturity, the return on the T-bill in the example would be $300).
• Treasury note
  Intermediate-term security having a maturity of one to ten years. Notes pay interest semiannually, and the principal is payable at maturity.
• Treasury bond
  Long-term security having a maturity of longer than ten years. Bonds pay interest semiannually, and the principal is payable at maturity.
  

The Treasury Department also issues several types of nonmarketable securities, including savings bonds.

V

A variable-rate agreement, as distinguished from a fixed rate agreement, calls for an interest rate that may fluctuate over the life of the loan. The rate is often tied to an index that reflects changes in market rates of interest. A fluctuation in the rate causes changes in either the payments or the length of the loan term. Limits are often placed on the degree to which the interest rate or the payments can vary.

Cash on hand at a depository institution to meet day-to-day business needs, such as cashing checks for customers. Can be used to satisfy the institution’s reserve requirement.

The rate at which money balances turn over in a period for expenditures on goods and services (often measured as the ratio of GNP—gross national product—to the money stock). A larger velocity means that a given quantity of money is associated with a greater dollar volume of transactions.

W

Electronic transfer of funds; usually involves large dollar payments.

A financing device that permits an existing loan to be refinanced and new money to be advanced at an interest rate between the rate charged on the old loan and the current market interest rate. The creditor combines or “wraps” the remainder of the old loan with the new loan at the intermediate rate.

Y

The return on a loan or investment, stated as a percentage of price.

Z

A long-term commercial mortgage that defers all payments of principal and interest until maturity.