Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries

(Updated 25 May 2010)

Over thirty countries are actively considering embarking upon nuclear power programs.
These range from sophisticated economies to developing nations.

Nuclear power is under serious consideration in over thirty countries which do not currently have it (in a few, consideration is not necessarily at government level). For countries in bold, nuclear power prospects are more fully dealt with in specific country papers.

In Europe: Italy, Albania, Serbia, Portugal, Norway, Poland, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Ireland, Turkey.
In the Middle East and North Africa: Iran, Gulf states including UAE & Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Israel, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Algeria, Morocco.

In west, central and southern Africa: Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, Uganda, Namibia.

In South America: Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela.

In central and southern Asia: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Bangladesh.

In SE Asia: Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand.

In east Asia: North Korea

Despite the large number of these emerging countries, they are not expected to contribute very much to the expansion of nuclear capacity in the foreseeable future - the main growth will come in countries where the technology is already well established.

In all countries governments need to create the environment for investment in nuclear power, including professional regulatory regime, policies on nuclear waste management and decommissioning, and involvement with international non-proliferation and insurance arrangements.

In different countries, institutional arrangements vary. Usually governments are heavily involved in planning, and in developing countries also financing and operation. As emerging nuclear nations lack a strong cadre of nuclear engineers and scientists, construction is often on a turnkey basis, with the reactor vendor assuming all technical and commercial risks in delivering a functioning plant on time and at a particular price. Alternatively the vendor may be set up a consortium to build, own and operate the plant. As the industry becomes more international, new arrangements are likely, including public-private partnerships.

The International Atomic Energy Agency has published a small book Considerations to Launch a Nuclear Power Programme (2007 ) which addresses the issues involved in a country deciding upon and implementing a nuclear power program. In particular it looks at those considerations before a decision is made, before construction starts and subsequently. It then briefly covers twelve factors for consideration.

In January 2008, the French Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) indicated that it would pay attention to new nuclear power projects in countries with no experience in this area. It said that the development of nuclear industry in a country needs at least 10 to 15 years in order to build up skills in safety and control and to define a regulatory framework. In a June 2008 position paper the five-member commission of ASN said that building the infrastructure needed to safely operate a nuclear power plant required time and that it would be selective about providing assistance. The commissioners said ASN would give priority to countries using French technologies, that it would apply "geophysical, economic, political, social, and technical" criteria, and require countries to be party to relevant international treaties. ASN said it takes at least five years to set up the legal and regulatory infrastructure for a nuclear power program, two to ten years to license a new plant, and about five years to build a power plant. That means a "minimum lead time of 15 years" before a new nuclear power plant can be started up in a country that does not already have the required infrastructure.

These comments relate to France's creation of Agency France Nuclear International (AFNI) under its Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) to provide a vehicle for international assistance. AFNI will be focused on helping to set up structures and systems to enable the establishment of civil nuclear programs in countries wanting to develop them, and will draw on all of France's expertise in this. It will be guided by a steering committee comprising representatives of all the ministries involved (Energy, Foreign Affairs, Industry, Research, etc) as well as representatives of other major French nuclear institutions including the CEA itself and probably ASN, though this is yet to be confirmed.

Italy

Electricity consumption in Italy in 2005 was 330 billion kWh, giving per capita consumption of 5640 kWh/yr.
In 2006 local production from 81 GWe of plant was 315 billion kWh gross, 50% from gas, 15% from oil, 16% from coal and 14% from hydro. Imports of 50.3 billion kWh (effectively, some 15% of its needs) are required, mostly nuclear power from France . This is equivalent to output from about 7 GWe of capacity at 80%.

Due to the high reliance on oil and gas, as well as imports, Italy's electricity prices are 45% above EU average.

Italy today is now the only G8 country without its own nuclear power, and is the world's largest net importer of electricity.

However, Italy was a pioneer of civil nuclear power and built several reactors which operated 1963-90. But following a referendum in November 1987, provoked by the Chernobyl accident 18 months earlier, work on the nuclear program was largely stopped. In 1988 the government resolved to halt all nuclear construction, shut the remaining reactors and decommission them from 1990. Italy then remained largely inactive in nuclear energy for 15 years.

In 2004 a new Energy Law opened up the possibility of joint venture with foreign companies in relation to nuclear power plants and importing electricity from them. This resulted from a clear change in public opinion, especially among younger people favouring nuclear power for Italy.

In 2005 Electricite de France and Enel signed a co-operation agreement which gives Enel some 200 MWe from the new Flamanville-3 EPR nuclear reactor (1700 MWe) in France, and potentially another 1000 MWe or so from the next five such units built. As well as the 12.5% share, Italy's electric utility Enel will also be involved in design, construction and operation of the plants, which will enhance Italy's power security and improve its economics. A major benefit will be in rebuilding Italy's nuclear skills and competence. Enel is expected to pay about EUR 350 million for its share in the project. Enel subsequently announced it was taking a 12.5% share in the second EPR being constructed in France, at Penly.

Enel has also bought 66% of the Slovak Electric utility which operates six nuclear power reactors, and Enel's investment plan for SE approved in 2005 by the Slovak government includes EUR 1.6 billion for completion of Mochovce nuclear power plant - 942 MWe gross - by 2011-12. Enel then took its equity in Spain’s Endesa, which has a major stake in three nuclear reactors, to 92% in February 2009.

In May 2008 the new Italian government confirmed that it will commence building new nuclear power plants within five years, to reduce the county's great dependence on oil, gas and imported power. It will work towards having 25% of its electricity from nuclear power by 2030, which will require 8 to 10 large new reactors by then. The government introduced a package of nuclear legislation, including measures to set up a national nuclear research and development entity, to expedite licensing of new reactors at existing nuclear power plant sites, and to facilitate licensing of new reactor sites. Enel plans to build new reactors at one of three licensed sites: Garigliano, Latina, or Montalto di Castro. The first two had small early-model reactors operating to 1982 and 1987. At Montalto di Castro two larger reactors were almost complete when the country's November 1987 referendum halted construction.

Several research reactors are operating, including AGN Constanza (since 1960), Uni of Pavia's LENA Triga II (250 kW, since 1965), ENEA's Tapiro (5 kW, since 1971), ENEA's Triga RC-1 (1 MW, since 1960) and a subcritical assembly.

Ansaldo Nucleare, which in conjunction with Canada's AECL, built Cernavoda 2 in Romania, is also involved with international R&D on new reactor systems.

See also Italy paper.

Albania

In 2007 the government proposed construction of a nuclear power plant for both domestic and export supply to Balkans and Italy. In 2009 Croatia supported the proposal, and the two countries agreed to work together on it and invite Montenegro and Bosnia to participate. A proposed site is at Durres. Italian utility Enel is looking into the feasibility of a nuclear plant.

Serbia

The governments of Russia and Serbia in 2009 were holding 'serious negotiations' for the construction of a nuclear plant on Serbian territory as a joint project.

Portugal

Portugal's electricity production is about 47 billion kWh/yr gross and in 2007 this came 27% from coal, 27% from gas and 22% from hydro. Net imports are about 5 TWh/yr from Spain.

Its electricity grid is closely linked with Spain's, so that a large nuclear plant on the Atlantic coast could serve both countries.

In 2004 the government rejected a proposal to introduce nuclear power but this is now being reviewed.

Norway

Norway's electricity is almost entirely hydro. In 2007, 137.7 billion kWh gross was generated, from 29.5 GWe of capacity. Exports and imports vary greatly with the season and hydro situation in Scandinavia. In 2004 net imports were 11.5 TWh and in 2005 net exports were 12 TWh, mostly to and from Sweden. In 2006 imports and exports largely balanced. Per capita use is about 23,000 kWh/yr.

Leaders of Norwegian industry want nuclear energy to supplement hydro. They believe nuclear power based on thorium, which Norway has plenty of, will prevent future energy crises.

A government-appointed committee reported in February 2008 that building thorium-fuelled power reactors was a possibility, which could be tested by using thorium fuel in the country's Halden research reactor.
The committee also said that the country should strengthen its international collaboration in nuclear energy and develop its human resources in nuclear science and engineering so as to keep the thorium option open as complementary to the uranium option. "The potential contribution of nuclear energy to a sustainable energy future should be recognised."

The Norwegian Radiation Protection Agency has licensed an underground repository inside a mountain for radioactive waste from the country's oil and gas industry. It will hold 6000 tonnes of NORM waste, and 400 tonnes has already been placed there.

Norway has 12 tonnes of used fuel from its Halden research reactor, and early in 2010 a commissioned report recommended that this be sent to Mayak in Russia for reprocessing. In this case the uranium would be used in RBMK reactor fuel and the plutonium recycled in Russia as MOX.

Poland

In 2007 Poland produced some 159 billion kWh gross from 32 GWe of mostly coal plant, giving per capita consumption of 2700 kWh/yr with very high CO2 emissions. Later figures suggest 24 GWe is operating. Poland has the largest reserves of coal in the EU (14 billion tonnes), and 93% of electricity comes from coal. Poland is a net electricity exporter – 11 bilion kWh in 2006, mostly to Czech Republic and Slovakia. Poland’s own electricity consumption is forecast to grow by 90% to 2025, but the EU has placed stringent restrictions on CO2 emissions. About half of the country's gas supply comes from Russia.

The Polish cabinet decided early in 2005 that for energy diversification and to reduce CO2 and sulfur emissions the country should move immediately to introduce nuclear power, so that an initial plant might be operating soon after 2020. In July 2006 the new Prime Minister reaffirmed the need to build nuclear power plants, and mentioned French technology.

A 2006 feasibility study suggested that 11.5 GWe of nuclear capacity would be optimum for Poland but possibly unaffordable in the medium term, so the figure of 4.5 GWe by 2030 was then targeted. A 2007 draft energy policy proposes 10 MWe of indigenous nuclear capacity by 2030, providing 10% of electricity then, and an interim 7.5% by 2022. In 2008 the Economy Minister said the first nuclear power plant was proposed by 2023 at the northern town of Zarnowiec, near Gdansk. The government then brought the target date for first nuclear power to 2020.

State-owned Polska Grupa Energetyczna SA (PGE), Poland's largest power group by generating capacity, in January 2009 announced plans to build two nuclear power plants, each with a capacity of 3,000 MWe, one in the north and one in the east of the country. PGE estimates that the cost would be EUR 2500-3000/kW. The energy security strategy approved by the Polish government in January 2009 aims at one or two nuclear power plants to be built by PGE, the first by 2020. PGE would hold 51% of the projects as part of a consortium with foreign partners. A four-stage plan envisages legislation for a regulatory framework in 2010, site, technology and construction arrangements over 2011-13, technical plans and site works 2014-15, and construction 2016-20. Zarnowiec is close to the coast but cooling is likely to be from a lake.

In November 2009 France and Poland signed a joint declaration on energy, environment and climate that calls for France to assist Poland in the construction of nuclear power plants. PGE then signed an agreement to work with EdF to investigate using EPR technology for Poland. A similar non-exclusive agreement was signed with GE Hitachi early in 2010, regarding ABWR and ESBWR technology. Westinghouse has signed a similar agreement for its AP1000. In March 2010 a nuclear cooperation agreement related to nuclear safety and a legal and regulatory framework for a nuclear industry was signed with Japan.

Poland had four 440 MWe Russian VVER-440 units under construction in the 1980s at Zarnowiec, but these were cancelled in 1990 and the components were sold, but the site remained a leading contender for at least 1500 MWe of capacity. Other sites in contention for further nuclear capacity have been Warta-Klempicz and Kopan.

A public opinion poll in December 2006 carried out for the National Atomic Energy Agency showed that 60% supported construction of nuclear power plants to reduce the country's dependence on natural gas and to reduce CO2 emissions. In contrast to NIMBY attitudes elsewhere, 48% said they would favour such a plant being built in their neighbourhood because of its immediate local benefits including lower power cost. A September 2009 poll showed that 70% of Poles would support having a nuclear power plant withing 100 km of their homes.

Lithuanian liaison:

In July 2006 Lithuania invited Poland to join with Estonia and Latvia in building a new large reactor in Lithuania, to replace the Ignalina units being shut down at EU insistence. Polish participation would justify a larger and more economical unit such as an EPR. In February 2007 the three Baltic states and Poland agreed to build a new nuclear plant there, initially with 3200 MWe. Lithuania as host would have 34% of the project and Poland, Latvia and Estonia 22% each. At least one unit of the project is expected to be operating by 2015. Total cost would be some EUR 6 billion. E.On earlier expressed interest in investing in such a unit. Poland said that unless it has access to at least 1000 MWe of the project, later increased to 1200 MWe, it is not worth building the transmission lines to Poland.

In July 2008 the Lithuanian government with energy companies from Latvia, Estonia and Poland (Latvenergo, Eesti Energia and Polska Grupa Energetyczna) established the Visaginas project development company Visagino Atomine Elektine (VAE) for the new 3200-3400 MWe nuclear power plant. Lithuania holds 51% of this, and the others 16% each, but the JV will be reconstituted later as a project implementation company with different share split related to long-term equity. Though located close to the Soviet-era Ignalina plant, the new one will be called Visaginas after the nearby town of that name. Lithuania wants at least 34% of the new plant (1090-1160 MWe), Poland wants 1000 MWe, while Latvia and Estonia want 400-600 MWe each. (Further details in Lithuania paper )

Meanwhile, and apart from possible Polish participation in the Baltic states nuclear plant, a high-voltage (400 kV) 1000 MW DC PowerBridge costing EUR 250-300 million to improve transmission capacity between Lithuania and Poland is to be built by 2015. It will be half funded by the EC. This follows inauguration of an interconnector between Estonia and Finland - Estlink, a 150 kV, 350 MW DC cable costing EUR 110 million and also supported by EC funding.

A further major transmission link, of 700 to 1000 MWe is proposed undersea between Sweden and Lithuania, to allow power from the new joint reactor to be exported to Scandinavia.

Poland joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.

Belarus

Belarus produces only 32 billion kWh/yr from 8 GWe of plant, mostly gas-fired, giving per capita consumption of 3330 kWh/yr.

The country imports 90% of its gas from Russia - much of it for electricity, and overall aims for 25-30% energy independence, compared with half that now. A single nuclear plant would be expected to reduce gas imports by US$ 200-400 million per year. There have been studies on both a domestic plant using Russian technology, and Belarus participation in a new nuclear unit at Smolensk or Kursk in Russia.

Plans to build a new coal-fired plant were shelved in 2005 because no coal supply could be found, but a 600 MWe coal-fired plant is now under consideration.

In mid 2006 the government approved a plan for the construction of an initial 2000 MWe PWR nuclear power plant in the in the Mogilev region of eastern Belarus. This was expected to provide electricity at half the cost of that from Russian gas (5 billion cubic metres per year for same capacity) and to provide some 30% of the electricity by 2020 at a cost of about EUR 4 billion (January 2008 estimate) on a turnkey basis.

After expressions of interest from international reactor vendors were invited, the energy ministry announced in August 2008 that proposals had been received from Atomstroyexport, Westinghouse-Toshiba and Areva. Anything from USA would need several years for an intergovernmental agreement, and Areva's EPR was noted as being too big for the first plant. In addition, the energy ministry received a proposal from the Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation. Russia's Atomstroyexport emerged as the most likely supplier for the 2 x 1000 MWe plant since the others either did not provide all the information required or could not build the plant soon enough. Operation of the first unit is envisaged for 2016 and the second in 2018. Two further units are proposed for operation by 2025. In June 2007 Russia's Eximbank offered a US$ 2 billion credit line to enable purchase of equipment from Russia's Power Machines company as a major part of the overall cost.

In November 2007 a presidential decree defined the organizations responsible for preparing for the construction of the country's first nuclear power plant and budgeted money for engineering and site selection. The candidate sites were Krasnopolyansk and Kukshinovsk (both in the Mogilev region) and Ostrovetsk in the Grodno region, 23 km from the Lithuanian border, which was chosen in December 2008. Ownership of the plant could be partly or wholly private, and the Bulgarian precedent on financing is being watched with interest (or despair).

The decree also aims to ensure that nuclear and radiation safety is in line with the recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). A Directorate for the Construction of a Nuclear Power Plant will be established under the Ministry of Energy. A Nuclear & Radiation Safety Department will also be set up as part of the Emergencies Ministry to act as the state nuclear regulator and licensing authority. The state-run Belnipienergoprom enterprise has been designated as the general designer of the plant and will be responsible for negotiating and signing contracts, carrying out feasibility studies and preparing tender documents.

In June 2009 the government announced that US$ 9 billion Russian financing had been secured, and that Atomstroyexport would be the general contractor, with Russian and Belarus subcontractors, notably St Petersburg AEP. Intergovernmental agreements and then a turnkey construction contract with Atomstroyexport for a 2400 MWe plant (2 x 1200 MWe AES-2006 units) are expected to be signed in mid 2010. Operation of the Ostrovets plant is scheduled for 2016 and 2018. In August, agreement on financing from 2010 was confirmed, and construction start for January 2010 was announced but has not eventuated. In March 2010 "active negotiations" continued, and the parties were discussing the terms of the loan, which will include provision for infrastructure.

Immediately after this, Atomstroyexport said that the intergovernmental agreement was nearly finalized, and once this was signed the construction contract should be ready for signature. Completion dates of 2016 and 2018 were still possible.

In May 2009 the government approved a nuclear cooperation agreement with China, which includes nuclear power, joint development of innovative reactor technologies, nuclear safety, radiation protection and environmental protection as well as radiation technologies and their applications, nuclear medicine and radiation therapy. It creates a legal basis for Chinese participation in nuclear power plant construction in Belarus, probably as consultant, and follows both a 2008 proposal from China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) and a 2005 cooperation agreement. Early in 2010 official announcements said that the President had proposed to cooperate with China in nuclear power, including the construction of a power plant, although Chinese official sources did not confirm this.

(A VVER-1000 unit was earlier being built near Minsk but construction was abandoned in 1988 after the Chernobyl accident.)

Estonia and Latvia

These countries had not been planning to build any nuclear capacity themselves and are participants in a plan to replace the Ignalina reactor in Lithuania with much larger capacity which will serve those three Baltic states and Poland. See Lithuania paper, and Poland section above.

Estonia generates most of its 9.7 billion kWh/yr gross of electricity from oil shale at the 2380 MWe Narva plant.

However, in 2008 Estonia took steps to identify sites for a possible nuclear power plant of its own, and investigate possible involvement in a sixth Finnish plant. The state energy company Eesti Energia announced early in 2009 that it was considering building two 335 MWe IRIS reactors, from Westinghouse, by 2019. A new energy policy adopted by the government in February 2009 requires the establishment of legal and regulatory structures for nuclear power by 2012, and provides for Eesti Energia to build a nuclear power plant of up to 1000 MWe and to cut the contribution from oil shale to 30% by 2025. In September 2009 Eesti Energia was granted a permit for site surveys of Suur-Pakri Island, located in Northern Estonia coastal low plains. A public information campaign is under way.

Estonia has recently completed a 350 MW DC cable interconnector with Finland - Estlink, costing EUR 110 million and supported by EC funding. Further potential connections are 650 MW between Estonia and Finland, 500 MW and 1000 MW between Lithuania and Poland, and 700 MW between the three Baltic countries and Sweden.

Estonia has two small Soviet naval reactors originally used for submarine training. They date from 1968 and 1983 and were closed down in 1989. They are in Safestor mode and will be dismantled after fifty years. The fuel has been returned to Russia.

Ireland

Ireland produces about 28 billion kWh/yr gross from 6 GWe of plant for its population of 4.1 million, giving per capita consumption of 6000 kWh/yr. About half of its electricity is generated by gas, but relative to the rest of Europe it is heavily dependent on oil for its electricity - 7%. Coal provides 27%. Wind provides around 7% from about 800 MWe of capacity. Ireland has a target of 3000 MWe wind capacity by 2020

In 1981 the government considered building a 650 MWe nuclear power plant (PWR) at Carnsore Point, but the plan was dropped as energy demand flattened. It would have required a link across the Irish Sea to the UK to be viable, due to its large size relative to the Irish grid.

A government-commissioned report by Forfas in April 2006 pointed to the need for Ireland again to consider nuclear power in order "to secure its long-run energy security". Relatively small-scale nuclear plants were envisaged. The report also suggested accelerating plans for greater east-west interconnection with the UK, which would draw on its nuclear capacity and also provide an export channel for any Irish nuclear power development.

In 2007 Ireland's Electricity Supply Board made it known that it would consider a joint venture with a major EU energy company to build nuclear capacity. In April 2008 the Irish Energy Regulator proposed a nationwide debate on the issue of nuclear power to address the country's pending energy crisis. It referred to the need to find an alternative to meet future energy needs since neither wind power or any other renewable energy sources could satisfy demand.

Turkey

In 2007 Turkey produced 191 billion kWh/yr gross from 40.6 GWe of plant. In 2007 49% of electricity came from gas (two thirds of this from Russia, most of the rest from Iran), 28% from coal and 19% from hydro. Demand growth is 8% pa. Per capita consumption has risen from 800 kWh/yr in 1990 to almost 2000 kWh/yr.

Several nuclear power projects have been proposed: In 1970 a feasibility study concerned a 300 MWe plant, in 1973 the electricity authority decided to build a 80 MWe demonstration plant but didn't, then in 1976 the Akkuyu site on the Mediterranean coast near the port of Mersin was licensed for a nuclear plant. In 1980 an attempt to build several plants failed for lack of government financial guarantee, in 1993 a nuclear plant was included in the country's investment program following a request for preliminary proposals in 1992. Then revised tender specifications were not released until December 1996. Bids for a 2000 MWe plant at Akkuyu were received from Westinghouse + Mitsubishi, AECL and Framatome + Siemens. Following the final bid deadline in October 1997, the government delayed its decision no less than eight times between June 1998 and April 2000, when plans were abandoned due to economic circumstances.

Early in 2006 the province of the port city of Sinop on the Black Sea was chosen to host a commercial nuclear power plant. This has the advantage of cooling water temperatures about 5 degrees below those at Akkuyu, allowing about 1% greater power output from any thermal unit. A 100 MWe demonstration plant was to be built there first, then 5000 MWe of further plants to come into service from 2012. Some kind of public-private partnership was envisaged for construction and operation.

In August 2006 the government said it planned to have three nuclear power plants total 4500 MWe operating by 2012-15. Discussions had been under way with Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd regarding two 750 MWe CANDU units as an initial investment. These and the PWR type are apparently preferred. The first units of some 5000 MWe total would be built at Akkuyu, since the site is already licensed, but licensing is proceeding for Sinop.

In 2007 a new bill concerning construction and operation of nuclear power plants and sale of their electricity was passed by parliament and subsequently approved by the President. The bill provided for the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) to set the criteria for building and operating the plants. The Turkish Electricity Trade & Contract Corporation (TETAS) would then buy all the power under 15-year contracts. The bill also provided for public institutions to build the plants if other offers are not satisfactory. It also addressed waste management and decommissioning, providing for a National Radioactive Waste Account (URAH) and a Decommissioning Account (ICH) which generators will pay into progressively.

TETAS called for tenders in March 2008, inviting bids for the first nuclear power plant at Akkuyu. TAEK issued specifications, allowing for PWR, BWR or PHWR types of at least 600 MWe and with 40-year service life. Design certification in country of origin was acceptable, allowing TAEK to concentrate on site-specific aspects of the 4800 MWe project. In the event, only one bid was received from the 14 interested parties, this being from Atomstroyexport in conjunction with Inter RAO (both from Russia) and Park Teknik (Turkey), for an AES-2006 power plant with four 1200 MWe reactors. After some deliberation, TAEK found that it met technical criteria. (It was later reported that TAEK required foreign vendors to take back used fuel, and none except ASE were prepared to do so.)

Following commercial advice from TETAS, a government decision was expected in April 2009, but in fact only a series of statements resulted, regarding the cost of power over the first 15 years being too high. Then in August 2009 two agreements between TAEK and Rosatom were signed with much fanfare. One was a nuclear cooperation agreement, the other was a standard one on the early notification on a nuclear accident and the exchange of information on nuclear facilities. These seem to progress the possibility of a Russian nuclear project at Akkuyu, probably with 25% government equity to dampen the likely electricity price rise. The first reactor was expected to come on line in 2016, and others in 2017, 2018 and 2019. However, following a ruling by the country's top legal body, TETAS canceled the Atomstroyexport proposal and said that a new tender would be launched soon. In fact, the parties proceeded to a direct high-level agreement instead.

In May 2010 Russian and Turkish heads of state signed an intergovernmental agreement for Rosatom to build, own and operate the Akkuyu plant of four 1200 MWe units. This will be its first foreign plant built on that basis. Rosatom, through Atomstroyexport and Inter RAO UES will finance the project and start off with 100% equity. Longer-term they intend to retain at least 51% of the company which will build, own and operate the Akkuyu plant. The Turkish firm Park Teknik and state generation company Elektrik Uretim AS (EUAS) are expected to take up significant shares in the US$ 20 billion project. Meanwhile, EUAS will provide the site.

TETAS will buy a fixed proportion of the power at a fixed price of US$ 12.35 cents/kWh for 15 years, or to 2030. The proportion will be 70% of the output of the first two units and 30% of that from units 3 & 4 over 15 years from commercial operation of each. The remainder of the power will be sold by the project company on the open market. After 15 years, when the plant is expected to be paid off, the project company will pay 20% of the profits to the Turkish government.

The project company is to apply for all licences within twelve months, and the first reactor is to be on line within seven years of receiving these, with the others to follow at one-year intervals. The agreement also provides for setting up a fuel fabrication plant in Turkey.

It is reported that Turkey’s energy ministry plans to draft a new nuclear energy bill which will be brought to parliament for ratification in June 2010. This will cover the agreement between Turkey and Russia to build and operate the Akkuyu nuclear power plant as a ‘state to state partnership’, without holding an open tender. The bill may also cover a second planned nuclear plant at Sinop. Meanwhile the government announced that it would take a 25% share in any nuclear power projects.

From February 2008 preparatory work has been under way at Sinop on the Black Sea to build a second nuclear plant there, along with a EUR 1.7 billion nuclear technology centre. In March 2010 an agreement was signed between Korea Electric Power Corporation (Kepco) and EUAS for Kepco to prepare a bid to build a nuclear power plant at Sinop, with four APR-1400 reactors. The bid, in conjunction with local construction group Enka Insaat ve Sanayi, is due in August. If the bid is accepted, an intergovernmental agreement would follow and EUAS would take a 25% stake in the plant.

There are proposals to build further nuclear capacity at another site, as part of 100 GWe required by 2030. Reports suggest that TAEK has identified Igneada on the Black Sea, close to Bulgaria, as a third nuclear power plant site.

Near Istanbul, eight Organised Industrial Parks comprising 70,000 firms and using 1.5 billion kWh per year set up a joint venture - IOSBB - to construct the country's first nuclear power plant(s) of 1500 MWe each. Likely sites mentioned included Sinop on Black Sea and Gokova on the Mediterranean. However, nothing has been heard of this proposal for some time.

Turkey has modest uranium resources, including 7400 tU listed in the 2007 Red Book which are amenable to mining by in situ leaching. In March AWH Corp agreed with Aldridge Uranium Inc to acquire a 75% interest in the main deposits and seek to prove up resources of 7700 tU.

In May 2008 a civil nuclear cooperation agreement with the USA entered into force.

Iran

Iran produced some 201 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 31 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 1943 kWh/yr. 74% of electricity comes from gas, 17% from oil, 9% hydro.

In the mid 1970s construction of two 1,200 MW(e) PWR units was started at Bushehr by Siemens KWU. In 1979 this was suspended. The Islamic Republic of Iran revived the nuclear power program in 1991 with a bilateral agreement with China for the supply of two 300 MW(e) PWR units of Chinese design, similar to the Qinshan power plant, but nothing eventuated.

In 1994, Russia's Minatom and the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) agreed to complete unit 1 of Bushehr nuclear power plant with a VVER-1000 unit, using mostly the infrastructure already in place. This long-awaited 915 MWe plant, being constructed by Atomstroyexport, is nearing completion and is expected to start up late in 2008, with commercial operation mid 2009. A second reactor is planned at the site.

After two years delay due to Iran's reluctance to return spent fuel to Russia without being paid for it, two agreements were signed early in 2005 covering both supply of fresh fuel for the new Bushehr nuclear reactor and its return to Russia after use. Supply of the fuel was originally contingent upon Iran's signing the Additional Protocol to its safeguards agreement with the IAEA. It has done this but not ratified it. The Russian agreement means that Iran's nuclear fuel supply is secured for the foreseeable future, removing any justification for enrichment locally. It also means that the anticipated 6-7 TWh/yr from the new reactor will free up about 1.6 million tonnes of oil or 1800 million cubic metres of gas per year which can be exported for hard currency.

Russia's Atomstroyexport in December 2007 delivered the first of 163 fuel assemblies for the initial core of Bushehr. The fuel is enriched to 3.62% or less and is under full international safeguards. The Russian government had withheld supply as negotiations over Iran's uranium enrichment activities proceeded.

The AEOI has announced that a new indigenous 360 MWe nuclear power plant is to be built at Darkhovin in Khuzestan province in the southwest, at the head of the Gulf, where two Framatome 900 MWe plants were about to be constructed in 1970s. It has also invited bids for two units of up to 1600 MWe to be built near Bushehr and come on line about 2016.

Iran also has a major project developing uranium enrichment capability and in November 2007 it announced that the initial target of 3000 centrifuges had been reached - evidently 18 cascades operating. This program is heavily censured by the UN, since no commercial purpose is evident.

See also UAE paper.

Jordan

Jordan imports about 95% of its energy needs. It generated 11.6 Billion kWh and imported 0.5 billion kWh of electricity in 2006 for its six million people. It has 2400 MWe of generating capacity and expects to need an additional 1200 MWe by 2015, and expects doubled electricity consumption by 2030. Per capita electricity consumption is about 2000 kWh/yr. Also it has a "water deficit" of about 500 million cubic metres per year.

Jordan's Committee for Nuclear Strategy, set up in 2007, has set out a program for nuclear power to provide 30% of electricity by 2030 or 2040, and to provide for exports. The nuclear law was modified in 2007 to establish the Jordan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) and the Jordan Nuclear Regulatory Commission, including radiation protection and environmental roles. JAEC's functions include safety and security, nuclear science and technology, and safeguards and verification. Its role is to transform Jordan from net energy importer to net electricity exporter by 2030, to provide power to fuel economic growth at low cost, and to end dependence on fossil fuels. Its strategy includes exploiting national uranium assets, promoting public/private partnerships, ensuring effective technology transfer and national participation, providing for water desalination and eventually hydrogen production, developing spin-off industries, and enabling competitive energy-intensive industries.

In mid 2008 an agreement between JAEC and Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) with SNC-Lavalin is to conduct a 3-year feasibility study on building an AECL 740 MWe Enhanced Candu-6 reactor using natural uranium fuel, for power and desalination. In August 2008 it was reported that the government intended to sign up for an Areva reactor, and discussions with Areva in November pointed to an 1100 MWe unit, presumably from Atmea, the Areva-Mitsubishi joint venture which is developing such a unit for countries embarking upon nuclear power programs.

In December 2008 JAEC signed a memorandum of understanding with Korea Electric Power Corp (KEPCO, parent company of KHNP) to carry out site selection and feasibility study on nuclear power and desalination projects. This is related to Doosan Heavy Industries, Korea's main nuclear equipment maker, carrying out desalination-related work in Jordan under a separate recent agreement, and KEPCO having won a tender to build a 400 MWe gas-fired power plant on a build-own-operate basis. Up to 40% of the capacity of any nuclear plant would likely be used for desalination.

Site options are limited to 30 kilometres of Red Sea coast near Aqaba. In September 2009 JAEC contracted with Tractabel Engineering, a subsidiary of GdF Suez, to undertake a two-year siting study for the new plant some 25 km south of Al Aqabah. In October JAEC announced the launch of a feasibility study by Tractabel on a site 12 km east of the Gulf of Aqaba coastline. Discussion of environmental aspects has taken place with Israel and Egypt. The plant will have a closed loop cooling system.

In November 2009 JAEC signed an $11.3 million agreement with Worley Parsons for the pre-construction phase of a 1000 MWe nuclear power plant. The firm is to carry out technology selection - preparing the tender and evaluating bidders, as well as assisting in fuel cycle engineering and waste management for the plant. It will also assist in establishing a utility company, expected to be a public-private entity, to own and operate the plant.

In 2009 the JAEC was evaluating seven offers from at least four reactor vendors: KEPCO, Areva-MHI, Atomstroyexport and AECL for technology options including: APR-1400, Atmea-1, AES-2006, AES-92, Enhanced Candu-6 (EC6) respectively. In May 2010 three vendors and designs were short listed, the Atmea-1 from Areva-MHI, the AECL EC6, and the AES-92 from Atomstroyexport. JAEC and Worley Parsons will take forward discussions first on the actual reactor designs and secondly "on the financing and organization support that the vendor will be providing for future operation of the plant."

JAEC expects to start building a 750-1100 MWe nuclear power plant in 2013 for operation by 2020 and a second one for operation by 2025. Longer-term, four nuclear reactors are envisaged. Further nuclear projects will involve desalination.

In December 2009 the JAEC selected a consortium headed by the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) with Daewoo to build a 5 MW research reactor at the Jordan University for Science & Technology by 2014 - the country's first. Cost is expected to be $173 million. The reactor will use 19% enriched fuel and will have the potential to upgrade to 10 MW. The Korean consortium was reported to be bidding against firms from Argentina, China and Russia. The research and test reactor will serve as an integral part of the nuclear technology infrastructure and will become the focal point for a Nuclear Science and Technology Centre (NSTC) with a key role in educating and training future generations of nuclear engineers and scientists. It will supply radioisotopes for medicine, industry and agriculture.

The country has low-cost uranium resources of 140,000 tU plus another 59,000 tU in phosphate deposits, and plans to mine these have been announced by the government. A feasibility study on recovering uranium as a by-product of phosphate production is under way.

In October 2008 a joint venture between JAEC and Areva was established to define uranium resources in central Jordan, and in February 2010 this became the JV company Nabatean Energy. Also the Jordan French Uranium Mining Company (JFUMC) was set up as a joint venture between Areva and Jordan Energy Resources Inc. and trades as Jordan Areva Resources. It has been operating within a 1,400-square-kilometre concession area in the central region, including the Swaqa, Khan Azzabib, Wadi Maghar and Attarat areas. It will carry out a feasibility study on mining, which is envisaged from early 2013, and is understood to be in phosphate deposits. Areva secured an agreement giving it exclusive uranium mining rights in central Jordan for 25 years. Areva said its goal was "to create a full partnership with Jordan on training and obtaining nuclear technology". China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) has been searching for uranium at Hamra-Hausha in the north, and Wadi Baheyya in the south, while Rio Tinto has been searching in Wadi Sahab Abiad, close to the Saudi Arabian border.

Jordan has signed nuclear cooperation agreements with the USA, Canada, France, UK and Russia, in respect to both power and desalination, and is seeking help from the IAEA. It has signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with China, covering uranium mining in Jordan and nuclear power, and others with South Korea and Japan related to infrastructure including nuclear power and desalination. Jordan joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in 2007.

Egypt

Egypt produced 115 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 18 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 1350 kWh/yr. In 2006 72% of electricity came from gas, 16% from oil and 11% from hydro. Demand growth is about 7% pa.

Egypt set up its Atomic Energy Commission in 1955, and what became the Atomic Energy Authority the following year, responsible for licensing and regulation. In 1964 a 150 MWe nuclear plant with 20,000 m3/day desalination capacity was proposed, then in 1974 a 600 MWe plant was proposed for Sidi Kreir near Alexandria. The government's Nuclear Power Plants Authority (NPPA) was then established in 1976, and in 1978 plans were drawn up for ten reactors by 1999 with 7200 MWe capacity, at Sidi Kreir, Al Arish, Cairo and in Upper Egypt. Talks then with French, German and Austrian interests as well as Westinghouse came to nothing.

In 1983 the El Dabaa site on the Mediterranean coast 250 km west of Alexandria and Zafraana on the Gulf of Suez were selected for nuclear plants. An agreement with France to provide reactors for El Dabaa led to tenders from Germany's KWU, Framatome and Westinghouse. Australia and Niger agreed to supply uranium. This plan was aborted following the Chernobyl accident. Over 1999-2001 the NPPA carried out a feasibility study for a cogeneration plant for electricity and desalination, updating it in 2003.

A new agreement on peaceful uses of atomic energy was signed with Russia at the end of 2004, and a further one in March 2008, reviving Egypt's plans for a nuclear power and desalination plant there, supported by Rosatom. . In 2006 a nuclear cooperation agreement was reached with China.

Egypt has a 1961-vintage 2 MW Russian research reactor at Inshas, serviced by Russia, and a 22 MW Argentinian research reactor partly supported by Russia and which started up in 1997.

On the basis of the feasibility study for a cogeneration plant for electricity and potable water at El-Dabaa, in October 2006 the Minister for Energy announced that a 1000 MWe reactor would be built there by 2015. The US$ 1.5 to 2 billion project would be open to foreign participation.

In December 2008 the Energy & Electricity Ministry announced that following an international tender, it had decided to award a $180 million contract to Bechtel to choose the reactor technology, choose the site for the plant, train operating personnel, and provide technical services over some ten years. However, in May 2009 the government transferred this contract to Worley Parsons, who signed it in June with the Nuclear Power Plant Authority for $160 million over 8 years to support the establishment of a 1200 MWe nuclear plant. The ministry confirmed that Egypt aims to begin generating nuclear electricity in 2017 at one of five possible sites. Early in 2010 the proposal had expanded to four plants, the first being on line in 2019. In March 2010 a legislative framework to regulate nuclear installations and activities in order to ensure the protection of facilities, individuals and property was signed into law.

Egypt signed the NPT in 1968, but until 1981 refused to ratify it unless Israel did. This caused plans in the 1970s to come to nothing.

Yemen

It was reported in September 2007 that Yemen had signed an agreement with Texas-based PowerEd Corporation to build 5000 MWe of nuclear power capacity by 2017. However, with 2006 production of 5 billion kWh (corresponding to about 700 MWe of base-load capacity) this did not seem plausible, and the government apparently cancelled the deal.

Israel

Israel produces 52 billion kWh gross per year, about 69% from coal and 30% from imported oil and gas in 2006. Later figures give 60% coal and 40% gas. It has little reserve capacity. Net exports are 1.8 billion kWh/yr.

In the 1980s the state-owned Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) set aside a site in the southern Negev at Shivta for a nuclear power plant, and discussions were held with France regarding equipment. The question was raised again in 2007 by the National Infrastuctures Ministry and Atomic Energy Commission. A twin reactor nuclear plant of 1200-1500 MWe under IAEA safeguards is envisaged for the site by 2020. Early in 2010 Israel said that it would prefer to develop its nuclear plant in collaboration with Jordan, but the sentiment was not reciprocated.

Israel has a 5 MWt research reactor at Nahal Soreq near Tel Aviv under IAEA safeguards and another 70 MWt French-built heavy water reactor at Dimona in the Negev, which is understood to have been used for military plutonium production.

Israel is one of three significant countries which have never been part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), so any supply of nuclear equipment or fuel from outside the country would be severely constrained. Unlike India and Pakistan, Israel has had no civil nuclear power program.

Syria

Syria produced 37 billion kWh gross in 2006, 51% of this from oil, 38% from gas, 11% from hydro.

Syria had plans in the 1980s to build a VVER-440 reactor but abandoned these after the Chernobyl accident and due to the collapse of Soviet Union. With escalating oil and gas prices, nuclear power is now being considered again, and Russia has offered to help.

Meanwhile over 2001-07 Syria built at a remote location what appeared to be a gas-cooled reactor similar to the plutonium production unit at Yongbyong in North Korea. This was destroyed by an Israeli air strike in 2007 and the remains then demolished. Israel claimed that the facility was a 25 MWt gas-cooled reactor with military purpose. The project was clandestine and apparently in breach of Syria's obligations under the NPT.

Tunisia

Tunisia produced 14 billion kWh gross in 2006, almost all of this from gas.

The government is reported to be evaluating the possible construction of a 600 MWe nuclear plant costing US$ 1.14 billion.

In December 2006 a nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with France, focused on nuclear power and desalination, and in April 2008 this was amplified.

Libya

In 2006 Libya produced 24 billion kWh gross of electricity, 59% of this from gas, 41% from oil.

Early in 2007 it was reported that Libya was seeking an agreement for US assistance in building a nuclear power plant for electricity and desalination. In 2006 an agreement with France was signed for peaceful uses of atomic energy and in mid 2007 a memorandum of understanding related to building a mid-sized nuclear plant for seawater desalination. Areva TA would supply this, with some involvement of the French CEA, and consultations on the project continue. In 2008 Libya signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia.

Early in 2010 the Libyan Atomic Energy Institute was preparing a nuclear law as part of the institutional infrastructure for setting up nuclear power plants.

In 2003 Libya had halted a clandestine program developing uranium enrichment capability, and fully opened itself to IAEA inspections.

Libya has a Russian 10 MW research reactor which is under IAEA safeguards.

Algeria

Algeria produced 35 billion kWh gross of electricity in 2006, almost all from natural gas, and it is a major gas exporter.

In January 2007 Russia signed an agreement to investigate the establishment of nuclear power there. Further nuclear energy cooperation agreements with Argentina, China, France, and the USA followed over 2007-08, the French one coupled with strong commercial interest from Areva.

In February 2009 the government announced that it planned to build its first nuclear power plant to be operating about 2020, and might build a further unit every five years thereafter.

In September 2009 its National Mining Patrimony Agency put uranium exploration leases in the southern Tamanrasset province out for tender. The 2007 'Red Book' shows the country having 26,000 tonnes of uranium resources.

Algeria has operated two research reactors since 1995, at Draria and Ain Ouessara. The 15 MWt Es-Salam plant is a Chinese heavy water reactor which started up in 1992, the Nur 1 MWe pool unit was built by INVAP of Argentina in the 1980s.

Morocco

Morocco has growing electricity demand and produced 23 billion kWh gross in 2006. It also has requirements for desalination. In 2006 59% of electricity was supplied by coal, 20% by oil, 13% from gas.

The government has plans for building an initial nuclear power plant in 2016-17 at Sidi Boulbra, and Atomstroyexport is assisting with feasibility studies for this. It is also setting up the infrastructure to support a nuclear power program, including establishment of a nuclear safety authority and a radiation protection authority. Earlier proposals were for a 600 MWe nuclear power plant to be sited between the cities of Essaouira and Asfi.

Morocco has a 2 MW Triga research reactor under construction at Mamoura near Rabat.

For desalination, it has completed a pre-project study with China, at Tan-Tan on the Atlantic coast, using a 10 MWt heating reactor which produces 8000 m³/day of potable water by distillation.

In October 2007 a partnership with France to develop a nuclear power plant near Marrakesh was foreshadowed and a nuclear energy cooperation agreement was signed.

In January 2010 the government announced plans for two 1000 MWe nuclear reactors to start operation after 2020 as part of its submission to the Copenhagen Accord, agreed late in 2009. (Under the terms of the Copenhagen Accord, developing countries were invited to submit proposed Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions - NAMAs - demonstrating how they planned to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through specified projects.)

In 2007 Areva signed an agreement with Morocco's Office Cherifien des Phosphates (OCP) to investigate recovery of uranium from phosphoric acid. The amount of uranium in Morocco's phosphates is reported to be very large.

The government's Office National des Hydrocarbures et des Mines (ONHYM) is encouraging exploration for uranium to build upon that done by French and Russian geologists prior to 1982. Three areas are under investigation: Haute Moulouya, Wafagga and Sirwa. The first two have palaeochannel deposits.

Nigeria

Nigeria produced 23 billion kWh in 2006 from about 6 GWe of plant; 58% of production was from gas, 33 from hydro. It had final consumption of 17 TWh, giving per capita consumption of only 113 kWh/yr.

To address rapidly increasing base-load electricity demand, Nigeria has sought the support of the International Atomic Energy Agency to develop plans for up to 4000 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2025. Nigeria is Africa's most populous country and its power demand is expected to reach 10,000 MWe by 2007 - current grid-supplied capacity is 2600 MWe. Power shortages have caused industries to relocate to Ghana.

Early in 2008 the Minister of Science and Technology said that the government has reaffirmed its determination to initiate its nuclear energy program by approving a technical framework for it. This is to proceed through manpower and infrastructure development, power reactor design certification, regulatory and licensing approvals, construction and start-up. In mid 2008 the target was moved forward to having up to 5000 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2017.

In March 2009 Russia signed a cooperation agreement with Nigeria, including provision for uranium exploration and mining in the country. A further broad agreement in June 2009 envisaged the construction of a Russian power reactor and a new research reactor.

Following evaluation of US designs by the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority, the government of Imo state signed an agreement with Barnett Holding Co in the USA to investigate sites for modular nuclear power reactors, using IAEA guidelines. These are to be 5 to 20 MWe and deployed to Owerri township, Ogwu city development, and elsewhere in Imo state.

Nigeria's first research reactor was commissioned at Ahmadu Bello University in 2004. It is a 30 kW Chinese Miniature Neutron Source Reactor similar to other Chinese units operating in Ghana, Iran, Syria and China. The IAEA assisted the Nigerian government with the project, to "reinforce and widen the human resource base to sustain nuclear technology" in relation to medical technology, geochemistry, mineral and petrochemical analysis and exploration.

Ghana

Ghana produced 8.4 billion kWh gross in 2006, 67% of this from hydro. In April 2007 the government announced that it planned to introduce nuclear power on energy security grounds. In May 2008 the government said it planned to have 400 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2018. Ghana joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.

Ghana has a small Chinese research reactor, operating since 1994.

Senegal

Early in 2010 Senegal announce that as part of its policy to replace oil for power generation, and to integrate with the West African Power Pool, it was considering a nuclear power plant by about 2010. Domestic consumption is only 550 MWe, but is growing at 7% per year. France has offered technical assistance.

Uganda

Uganda's Atomic Energy Bill came into effect in 2008, to regulate the use of ionising radiation and provide a framework to develop nuclear power generation. The government has signed an agreement with IAEA to initiate moves in that direction.

Namibia

Namibia's electricity supply of 3.5 billion kWh in 2006 was more than half supplied by South Africa, which faces supply constraints itself. The 1.6 billion kWh generated domestically was mostly from hydro. A coal-fired plant is planned for Walvis Bay.

Namibia holds about 7% of the world's uranium reserves, which are mined to fuel nuclear power stations around the world. Now the government has committed to a policy position of supplying its own electricity from nuclear power. The country faces severe challenges in power supply.

See also Kazakhstan paper.

Mongolia

Russia is reported to be examining the feasibility of building nuclear power plants in Mongolia, and in April 2008 Russia and Mongolia signed a high-level agreement to cooperate in identifying and developing Mongolia's uranium resources. The country’s gross electricity production in 2006 was 3.6 billion kWh.

Chile

Chile imports over 70% of its energy, mostly as hydrocarbons. It produced 57.6 billion kWh gross in 2006 from some 11 GWe of plant and imported 2.3 billion kWh. There is a need to build a further 5 - 7 GWe by 2020 to secure a measure of energy security as Argentina cuts back gas supplies. Per capita consumption is 2760 kWh/yr. 40-60% of electricity comes from hydro, depending on how much rain it has, and in 2006, 20% came from imported natural gas. Up to 20% comes from coal and there are proposals for new coal-fired plants.

In February 2007 the Energy Ministry announced that it was beginning technical studies into the development of nuclear power. A major business group has already had discussions with Areva about building a nuclear power plant to connect Chile's northern and central power grids. In November 2007 the President asked the Energy Minister to prepare new studies regarding the country's nuclear energy options for the next administration. In mid 2009 the country's mining industry called for the establishment of nuclear power by about 2025 to counter escalating energy costs and an impending energy deficit.

Early in 2010 the Energy Minister said that the first nuclear plant of 1100 MWe should be operating in 2024, joined by four more by 2035 to replace coal capacity. He outlined a plan to create the necessary infrastructure, including developing human resources, a regulatory framework, safety and waste management provisions, geological studies and building public consensus between the years 2012 and 2018. A public-private partnership is proposed to build the first plant, with a tender being called in 2016.

Ecuador

In August 2009 the government signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia's Rosatom with a view to developing a nuclear power program and related projects.

Venezuela

Venezuela produced 110 billion kWh gross in 2006, 28% of this from fossil fuels, 72% from hydro.

The National Assembly is working on legislation which includes nuclear power as an option. The President announced in November 2007 that the country will pursue a nuclear power program, inspired by Brazil and Argentina. Late in 2008 he announced that this would be with Russian help, and the first unit would be in the northwestern province of Sulia. A civil nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with Russia in November 2008 and a further nuclear agreement in April 2010. The country also has very close links with Iran.

The government has confirmed that Iran is assisting with geophysical surveys related to uranium exploration, but there is no mining. Unconfirmed reports in 2009 of uranium exports to Iran have been denied. A Canadian company, U3O8 Corp, is exploring for uranium in the Guyana part of the Roraima Basin, which straddles the border.

The country had a small (3 MW) research reactor operating 1960-94, and in mid 2009 was discussing with Atomenergoprom the construction of another.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh produced 24.3 billion kWh gross in 2006 from some 4 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 114 kWh/yr. 88% of electricity comes from natural gas. Electricity demand is now rising rapidly and the government aims to increase capacity to 7 GWe by 2014. New small coal-fired plants are envisaged for 2 GWe of that.

Building a nuclear power plant in the west of the country was proposed in 1961. Since then a number of feasibility reports have affirmed the technical and economic feasibility. The Rooppur site in Pabna district was selected in 1963 and land was acquired. The government gave formal approval for a succession of plant proposals, then after independence a 125 MWe nuclear power plant proposal was approved in 1980 but not built.

With growth in demand and grid capacity since then, a much larger plant looked feasible, and the government in 1999 expressed its firm commitment to build this Rooppur plant. In 2001 it adopted a national Nuclear Power Action Plan and in 2005 it signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with China. In 2007 the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission proposed two 500 MWe nuclear reactors for Rooppur by 2015, quoting likely costs of US$ 0.9-1.2 billion for a 600 MWe unit and US$ 1.5-2.0 billion for 1000 MWe. In April 2008 the government reiterated its intention to work with China in building the Rooppur plant and China offered funding for the project. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has approved a Technical Assistance Project for Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant to be initiated between 2009 and 2011, and it then appeared that an 1100 MWe plant was envisaged.

Russia, China and South Korea had earlier offered financial and technical help to establish nuclear power, and in March 2009 Russia made a formal proposal to build a nuclear power plant in the country. In May 2009 a bilateral nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with Russia. In May 2010 an intergovernmental agreement was signed with Russia, providing a legal basis for nuclear cooperation in areas such as siting, design, construction and operation of power and research nuclear reactors, water desalination plants, and elementary particle accelerators. Other areas covered included fuel supply and wastes.

In April 2009 the government approved the Russian proposal to build a 1000 MWe nuclear plant at Rooppur for about $2 billion, with the hope of having it operating in 2014, though a year later this had become two such reactor by 2017.

The country has had a Triga 3 MW research reactor operational since 1986.

Indonesia

Indonesia's population of 242 million is served by power generation capacity of only 21.4 GWe, producing 133 billion kWh/yr (2006). In 2006 44% came from brown coal, 29% from oil, 15% from gas, 7% from hydro and 5% from geothermal. It has per capita electricity consumption: 475 kWh/yr.

With an industrial production growth rate of 10.5%, electricity demand is estimated to reach 175 TWh in 2013 and 450 billion kWh in 2026. At present a low reserve margin with poor power plant availability results in frequent blackouts.

About 45% of Indonesia's electricity is generated by oil and gas, so as well as catering for growth in demand in its most populous region, the move to nuclear power will free up oil for export.

Three research reactors are operated by the National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN), the third of them being intended to support the introduction of nuclear power to the country. It is a 30 MW (thermal) unit at the Serpong Nuclear Facility near Jakarta, and started up in 1987.

Following earlier tentative proposals, in 1989 the government initiated a study focused on the Muria Peninsula in central Java and carried out by the National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN). It led to a comprehensive feasibility study for a 7000 MWe plant, completed in 1996, with Ujung Lemahabang as the specific site, selected for its tectonic stability. Plans for the initial plant on the Muria Peninsula in central Java were then deferred indefinitely early in 1997.

Then a 2001 power generation strategy showed that introduction of a nuclear plant on the Java-Bali grid would be possible in 2016 for 2 GWe rising to 6-7 GWe in 2025, using proven 1000 MWe technology with 85% capacity factor and investment cost $2000/kWe. The Java-Bali interconnected system accounts for more than three quarters of Indonesia's electricity demand.

Late in 2003 BATAN had narrowed the choice of plant to the South Korean OPR-1000 or the Canadian ACR-700. Subsequent reports pointed to the Korean OPR-1000 option and suggest an increasing sense of urgency due to power shortages.

Under the 2006 Law on Nuclear Reactors the project may be given to an Independent Power Producer to build and operate, on one of three sites on the central north coast of Java. Plans were to call tenders in 2008 for two 1000 MWe units, Muria 1 & 2, leading to decision in 2010 with construction starting soon after and commercial operation from 2016 and 2017, but this schedule has slipped. Fuel services would be purchased from abroad and fuel would preferably be leased. Used fuel would be stored centrally in the medium term. Tenders for Muria units 3 & 4 were expected to be called for in 2016, for operation from 2023.

The government has said that it has $8 billion earmarked for four nuclear plants of total 6 GWe to be in operation by 2025. Under current plans it aims to meet 2% of power demand from nuclear by 2017. It is anticipated that nuclear generation cost would be about 4 cents/kWh (US) compared with 7 c/kWh for oil and gas.

In July 2007 Korea Electric Power Corp. and Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co. (KHNP) signed a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia's PT Medco Energi Internasional to progress a feasibility study on building two 1000 MWe OPR-1000 units from KHNP at a cost of US$ 3 billion. This was part of a wider energy collaboration.

In addition, Batan has undertaken a pre-feasibility study for a small Korean SMART reactor for power and desalination on Madura. However, this awaits the building of a reference plant in Korea. Also the province of Gorontalo on Sulawesi is reported to be considering a floating nuclear power plant from Russia, and late in 2007 a cooperation agreement with Japan was signed, envisaging its help in building and operating nuclear power plants.

The Japanese and Indonesian governments signed a cooperation agreement in November 2007 relating to assistance to be provided for the preparation, planning, and promotion of Indonesia's nuclear power development and assistance for public relations activities.

The IAEA is reviewing the safety aspects of both Muria and Madura proposals, with Indonesia's Nuclear Technology Supervisory Agency.

During the 1980s Indonesia trained many technical people in anticipation of nuclear power development then, many of these are still available for the new project.

Indonesia has several nuclear-related facilities in operation. In addition to three research reactors, it has front-end capabilities in ore processing, conversion and fuel fabrication, all at a laboratory scale. There have been no experiments in reprocessing, but there is a radwaste program for spent fuel from the research reactors.

There are some uranium resources in Kalimantan.

Indonesia's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1980 and the Additional Protocol entered force in 1999. In 1997 it signed the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and Radioactive Waste Management.

Philippines

The Philippines produced 56.7 billion kWh gross of electricity in 2006, 27% came from coal, 29% from gas, 8% from oil, 17.5% from hydro and 18.5% from geothermal. Electricity consumption is increasing steadily and an additional 3 GWe of base-load capacity is required by 2013 to avert shortages.

In response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Philippines decided to build the two-unit Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP). Construction of Bataan 1 - a 621 MWe Westinghouse pressurized water reactor - began in 1976 and it was completed in 1984 at a cost of $460 million. However, due to financial issues and safety concerns related to earthquakes, the plant was never loaded with fuel or operated. In April 2007, the Philippine government made the final payment for the plant. The government was considering converting it into a natural gas-fired power plant, but this was impractical, and the plant has simply been maintained at a cost of some $800,000 per year.

In 2007 the Philippines Department of Energy (DOE) set up a project to study the development of nuclear energy, in the context of an overall energy plan for the country. Nuclear energy would be considered in order to reduce the country's dependency on imported oil and coal. In its 2008 update of the national energy plan, 600 MWe was projected on line in 2025, with further 600 MWe increments in 2027, 2030 and 2034 to give 2400 MWe.

In 2008 an IAEA mission commissioned by the government advised that Bataan-1 could be refurbished and economically and safely be operated for 30 years. Refurbishment, with upgrade of safety and instrument & control systems, was estimated to cost $800 million to $1 billion. The IAEA was also to recommend a policy framework for nuclear power development in the country. In December 2008 the National Power Corporation commissioned Korea Electric Power Corp (KEPCO, parent company of KHNP) to conduct an 18-month feasibility study on commissioning Bataan. One factor in choosing KEPCO for this was its experience with Kori-2, a very similar unit in Korea. Its preliminary recommendation in December 2009 was that Bataan should be refurbished.

As well as this, the government is considering two further 1000 MWe Korean Standard Nuclear Plant units, using equipment from the aborted North Korean KEDO project. KEPCO is reported to be offering this equipment for $1.1 billion.

The government is establishing a working group with a view to proceeding along the same lines as Thailand, retaining engineering consultants to guide progress. The Department of Energy is considering how to rebuild local skills in nuclear sciences and engineering. The state-owned National Power Corporation (Napocor) originally had 710 nuclear engineers who were trained by Westinghouse and Ebasco Overseas Corp. in the 1980s, but this has declined to about one hundred, many of whom are due to retire in the next five to ten years.

The Philippines' safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1974 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol. In 1998 it signed the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and Radioactive Waste Management.

Vietnam

Vietnam produced 56.5 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 11.4 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 445 kWh/yr. In 2006 42% of electricity came from hydro, 37% from gas, 17% from coal, and demand is growing rapidly. In mid 2008 capacity was about 12.5 GWe and demand significantly higher than this, resulting in rationing. According to the government at the end of 2006, electricity demand is expected to grow 15% pa to 2010 and it plans to increase generating capacity to 25 GWe. Demand growth in 2009 is about 13%.

In the early 1980s two preliminary nuclear power studies were undertaken, followed by another which reported in 1995 that: "Around the year 2015, when electricity demand reaches more than 100 billion kWh, nuclear power should be introduced for satisfying the continuous growth in the country's electricity demand in that time and beyond".

In February 2006 the government announced that a 2000 MWe nuclear power plant should be on line by 2020. This general target was confirmed in a nuclear power development plan approved by the government in August 2007, with the target being raised to a total of 8000 MWe nuclear by 2025. A general law on nuclear energy was passed in mid 2008, and a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework is being developed.

A pre-feasibility study for 2000 MWe in Ninh Thuan province carried out by the Ministry of Industry & Trade was approved by the National Assembly in November 2009, and a comprehensive feasibility study will be undertaken by 2012.

As of October 2008, two reactors total 2000 MWe were planned at Phuoc Dinh in the southern Ninh Thuan province to be constructed from 2014 and come into operation from about 2020, followed by another 2000 MWe at Vinh Hai in the Ninh Hai district. These plants would be followed by a further 6000 MWe by 2030, subsequently increased to having a total of 15,000 MWe by 2030. The anticipated cost of the first two plants is not less than $11.3 billion, and some 85% of this would need to be found from overseas loans.

Atomstroyexport, Westinghouse, EdF, and China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) are in discussion about supplying the first two twin-unit plants. South Korea expressed interest in bidding for the project. An unconfirmed report early in 2010 said that the Japanese government, with Tepco and others, was soliciting an $11 billion contract. Another unconfirmed report said that a consortium of Mitsubishi, Toshiba and Hitachi bid for the project, but lost out to Atomstroyexport, which for some time has appeared to be the leading contender to build the first two plants.

Since 2006, nuclear cooperation agreements have been signed with France, China (in particular with CGNPC), South Korea, Japan, Russia, USA and Canada. In 2007 there was an agreement between the US Department of Energy's (DoE's) National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) and Vietnam's Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) for cooperation and information exchange on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. June 2008 the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Vietnam Agency for Radiation and Nuclear Safety & Control (Varans) signed a cooperation agreement to share technical information on nuclear energy as well as exchanging information about regulations, environmental impact and safety of nuclear sites. Vietnam's new Atomic Energy Law was passed in June 2008 and came into effect early in 2009. A further nuclear cooperation agreement with the USA was signed in March 2010.

An early nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia relates principally to Vietnam's 500 kW Da Lat research reactor, built in 1980. This replaced an earlier US Triga MkII reactor which started in 1963 but was dismantled by the USA in the early 1970s.

The Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1976 and is under the Ministry of Science & Technology. Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) will be the company responsible for building and operating the plants, and will be the sole investor for the first two plants (each nominally 2 x 1000 MWe). The estimated $10.3 billion for these would be financed 25% EVN equity and the balance would be borrowed from countries supplying the technology.

Vietnam's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1990 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol.

Thailand

Peak demand is about 20 GWe and in 2006 some 139 billion kWh gross was generated. About 68% was from natural gas, 18% from coal. Installed capacity is about 28 GWe, half of it gas-fired. Forecast peak demand in 2021 is almost 50 GWe. Thailand has the potential to be a regional electricity hub for ASEAN countries.

Tentative plans to embark on a nuclear power program have been revived by a forecast growth in electricity demand of 7 per cent per year for the next twenty years. Capacity requirement in 2016 is forecast at 48 GWe. As gas prices rise, the Atomic Energy Commission and its Office of Atoms for Peace (OAP) however are assessing the feasibility of nuclear power, and any initial plants would probably be built by the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT). Independent power producers have also expressed interest. The Ministry of Science & Technology is responsible for the issue.

As gas prices rose, Thailand's National Energy Policy Council commissioned a feasibility study for a nuclear power plant in the country. Among the options in the draft power development plan for 2007-2021 was the construction of 5000 MWe of nuclear generating capacity, starting up in 2020-21.

In June 2007 the Energy Minister announced that EGAT will proceed with plans to build a 4000 MWe nuclear power plant, and budgeted some US$ 53 million between 2008 and 2011 on preparatory work, half of it coming from oil revenues. Construction is to commence in 2014. The capital cost is expected to be US$ 6 billion and electricity cost about USD 6 cents/kWh, slightly less than from coal.

The government plans to establish safety and regulatory infrastructure by 2014 and commissioned a formal 3-year feasibility study early in 2008. Then in October 2008 the engineering firm Burns & Roe was commissioned to undertake a 20-month study to recommend siting, technology and reactor size for the first plant. The project will then go out to tender with a view to starting construction in 2014. The government plans to have 1000 MWe nuclear on line by 2021 and another 1000 MWe a year later. An EGAT feasibility study lists five possible sites for the project. Two are in Surat Thani province and the others in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trat and Nakhon Sawan.

In November 2009 EGAT and CLP Holdings Ltd signed an agreement with China Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation regarding nuclear power development.

Thailand has had an operating research reactor since 1977 and a larger one is under construction.

Thailand's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1974 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol.

Malaysia

Malaysia produced 91.6 billion kWh gross in 2006, 64% of this from gas, 25% from coal, 8% from hydro. It has about 24 GWe of capacity, a 55% increase over two years to 2005. Government policy is to reduce reliance on natural gas by building coal-fired capacity. It is noteworthy that Singapore has about 12 GWe of (mostly gas) capacity, and any Malaysian project could be related also to that market.

A comprehensive energy policy study including consideration of nuclear power has been undertaken and in May 2010 the Energy Minister said that nuclear power was the only viable energy option long-term. The main state-owned utility Tenaga Nasional Bhd (TNB) is tentatively in favour of nuclear power and in August 2006 the Malaysian Nuclear Licensing Board said that plans for nuclear power after 2020 should be brought forward and two reactors built much sooner. This intention has since been reiterated from the Ministry of Science, Technology & Innovation.

In July 2008 the government directed TNB to set up a task force to look at the feasibility of nuclear power, the study likely to take two years. In September the government announced that it had no option but to commission nuclear power due to high fossil fuel prices, and set 2023 as target date. It then sent a draft energy policy blueprint back to the Energy Commission as it was not comprehensive enough. As of early 2010 the government had a $7 billion budget to build a nuclear power plant, and in May the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water was told to find a suitable site so that the first unit could be in operation by 2021.

http://www.malaysiaenergy.com

The Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology Research has operated a 1 MW Triga research reactor since 1982. In April 2007 MINT was renamed the Malaysian Nuclear Agency (or Nuclear Malaysia) to reflect its role in promoting the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Malaysia's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1972 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol. For some years Malaysia was a unregulated transhipment point for nuclear technology smuggling by Iran, Pakistan and North Korea, but in April 2010 it adopted an export control law to thwart this activity.

Singapore

Singapore has relatively high power demand (14 GWe) for its size, and is dependent on gas-fired generation, the fuel being piped from Indonesia. It is considering the prospects of using nuclear power.

Australia

Australia produced 255 billion kWh from 46 GWe of capacity in 2006, with 23 billion kWh/yr being embedded in aluminium exports. Final consumption was 187 billion kWh, hence per capita consumption (net of Al exports) is 9100 kWh/yr. Low-cost power is a competitive advantage of the country. 80% of electricity comes from coal-fired plant, 12% from gas and 7% from hydro. This gives it a high output of CO₂, which is the main reason that discussion has started on possible nuclear generation in the future. Australia joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.

Australia has operated a research reactor since 1956 and has now commissioned its 20 MWt replacement.

About 1970 the Australian government sought tenders for building a nuclear power reactor at Jervis Bay, NSW. Designs from UK, USA, Germany and Canada were short listed, but a change in leadership led to the project being cancelled in 1972. However, until 1983 there were various plans and proposals for building an enrichment plant.

At the end of 2006 the report of the Prime Minster's expert taskforce considering nuclear power was released. It said nuclear power would be 20-50% more expensive than coal-fired power and (with renewables) it would only be competitive if "low to moderate" costs are imposed on carbon emissions (A$ 15-40 - US$ 12-30 - per tonne CO2). "Nuclear power is the least-cost low-emission technology that can provide base-load power" and has low life cycle impacts environmentally. The first nuclear plants could be running in 15 years, and looking beyond that, 25 reactors at coastal sites might be supplying one third of Australia's (doubled) electricity demand by 2050. Certainly "the challenge to contain and reduce greenhouse gas emissions would be considerably eased by investment in nuclear plants." "Emission reductions from nuclear power could reach 8 to 18% of national emissions in 2050".