Sun

I

Introduction

Sun, closest star to Earth. The Sun is a huge mass of hot, glowing gas. The strong gravitational pull of the Sun holds Earth and the other planets in the solar system in orbit. The Sun’s light and heat influence all of the objects in the solar system and allow life to exist on Earth.

The Sun is an average star—its size, age, and temperature fall in about the middle of the ranges of these properties for all stars. Astronomers believe that the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and will keep shining for about another 7 billion years.

For humans, the Sun is beautiful and useful, but also powerful and dangerous. As Earth turns, the Sun rises over the eastern horizon in the morning, passes across the sky during the day, and sets in the west in the evening. This movement of the Sun across the sky marks the passage of time during the day (see Sundial). The Sun’s movement can produce spectacular sunrises and sunsets under the right atmospheric conditions. At night, reflected sunlight makes the Moon and planets bright in the night sky.

The Sun provides Earth with vast amounts of energy every day. The oceans and seas store this energy and help keep the temperature of Earth at a level that allows a wide variety of life to exist. Plants use the Sun’s energy to make food, and plants provide food for other organisms. The Sun’s energy also creates wind in Earth’s atmosphere. This wind can be harnessed and used to produce power.

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While it lights our day and provides energy for life, sunlight can also be harmful to people. Human skin is sensitive to ultraviolet light emitted from the Sun. Earth’s atmosphere blocks much of the harmful light, but sunlight is still strong enough to burn skin under some conditions (see Burn). Sunburn is one of the most important risk factors in the development of skin cancers, which can be fatal. Sunlight is also very harmful to human eyes. A person should never look directly at the Sun, even with sunglasses or during an eclipse. The Sun influences Earth with more than just light. Particles flowing from the Sun can disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, and these disruptions can interfere with electronic communications.

II

Physical Characteristics

The Sun is large and massive compared to the other objects in the solar system. The Sun’s radius (the distance from its center to its surface) is 695,508 km (432,169 mi), 109 times as large as Earth’s radius. If the Sun were hollow, a million Earths could fit inside it. The Sun has a mass of 1.989 × 10²⁷ metric tons. This number is very large. Written out, it would be the digits 1989 followed by 24 zeroes. The Sun is 333,000 times as massive as Earth is. Despite its large mass, the Sun has a lower density, or mass per unit volume, than Earth. The Sun’s average density is only 1.409 g/cu cm (1.188 oz/cu in), which is a quarter of the average density of Earth.

The Sun produces an enormous amount of light. It generates 3.83 × 10²⁶ watts of power in the form of light. In comparison, an incandescent lamp emits 60 to 100 watts of power. The temperature of the outer, visible part of the Sun is 5500°C (9900°F).

From Earth the Sun looks small, because it is far away. Its average distance from Earth is 150 million km (93 million mi). Light from the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach Earth. This light is still strong enough when it reaches Earth, however, to damage human eyes when viewed directly. The Sun is much closer to Earth than any other star is. The Sun’s nearest stellar neighbor, Proxima Centauri (part of the triple star Alpha Centauri), is 4.3 light-years from our solar system, meaning light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.3 years to reach the Sun. The Sun is so much closer to Earth than all other stars are that the intense light of the Sun keeps us from seeing any other stars during the day.

A

Importance to Earth

Earth likely would not have any life on it without the Sun’s energy, which reaches Earth in the form of heat and light. This energy warms our days and illuminates our world. Green plants absorb sunlight and convert it to food, which these plants then use to live and grow (see Photosynthesis). In this process, the plants give off the oxygen that animals breathe. Animals eat these plants for nourishment. Plant and animal life relies on the Sun’s presence. Even organisms that use chemicals rather than sunlight to produce food and energy (see Chemosynthesis; Extremophile) may not have evolved if the early Earth had not had liquid water made possible by the Sun’s warmth.

The Sun also provides—directly or indirectly—much of the energy on Earth that people use for fuel (see Solar Energy). Devices called solar cells turn sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can heat a gas or liquid, which can then be circulated through a building to heat the building. The energy stored in fossil fuels originally came from the Sun. Ancient plants used sunlight as fuel to grow. Animals consumed these plants. The plants and animals stored the energy of sunlight in the organic material that composed them. When the ancient plants and animals died and decayed, this organic material was buried and gradually turned into the petroleum, coal, and natural gas people use today.

The Sun’s energy produces the winds and the movements of water that people harness to produce electricity (see Wind Energy; Water Power). The Sun heats Earth’s oceans and land, which in turn heat the air and make it circulate in the atmosphere as wind. The Sun fuels Earth’s water cycle, evaporating water from the oceans, seas, and lakes. This water returns to the ground in the form of precipitation, flowing back to the oceans through the ground and in rivers. The energy of water’s motion in rivers can be harnessed with dams.

B

Role in the Solar System

The Sun’s gravitational pull holds the solar system together. The planets, asteroids, comets, and dust that make up our solar system are strongly attracted to the Sun’s huge mass. This gravitational attraction keeps these bodies in orbit around the Sun. The Sun also influences the solar system with its diffuse outer atmosphere, which expands outward in all directions. This expanding atmosphere fills the solar system with a constant flow of tiny, fast, electrically charged particles. This flow is called the solar wind. The region through which the solar wind blows is called the heliosphere. Estimates vary about the extent of the heliosphere, ranging from about 86 to about 100 times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Interstellar winds may give the heliosphere an egg shape. The solar wind spreads out as it leaves the Sun. The point at which the solar wind is so diffuse that it stops having an effect on its surroundings is called the heliopause. The heliopause marks the outer edge of the solar system.

Within the heliosphere, the Sun provides most of the heat and light that are present, and the particles in the solar wind interact with the planets and satellites in the solar system. The solar wind causes auroras—displays of colored light—in the atmosphere of Earth’s polar regions. The solar wind also carries remnants of the Sun’s magnetic field, which affect the magnetic fields of the planets and larger satellites. The solar wind pushes the planets’ magnetic fields away from the Sun, turning them into elongated, windsock shapes. For more information, see the Solar Wind section of this article.

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