In the early 1700's, Hendrick Aupaumut, Mohican Historian, wrote that a great
people traveled from north and west. They crossed
waters where the land almost touched. (According the
John Quinney, Hendrick Aupaumut committed the oral
history of the Mohicans to writing, in the mid 1700's, a
non-Indian took the manuscript to be published and it
was reportedly lost. When found, the manuscript's
first page was missing. Two versions of the
manuscript exist: one is the Massachusetts Historical
Collections and one in Electa Jones' book Stockbridge
Past and Present. What is meant by the "north and
west" and "waters where the land nearly touched" is not
known. The Bering Strait theory is questionable,
based on current research.) For many, many years
they moved across the land, leaving settlements in rich
river valleys as other moved on.
Reaching the eastern edge of the country, some of these
people, called the Lenni Lenape, chose to settle on the
river later renamed the Delaware. Others moved
north and settled in the valley of a river where the
waters, like those in their original homeland, were
never still. They named this river the
Mahicannituck and called themselves the Muh-he-con-neok,
the People of the Waters That are Never Still. The name
evolved through several spelling, including Mahikan.
Today, however, they are known as the Mohicans.
Because the Mohican people chose to build their homes near the
rivers where they would be close to food, water and
transportation, they were sometimes called River Indians.
Their homes, called wik-wams, (wigwams), were circular and made
of bent sapling covered with hides or bark. They also
lived in long-houses which were often very large, sometimes as
long as a hundred feet. The roofs were curved and covered with
bark, except for smoke homes which allowed the smoke from fire
pits to escape. Several families from the same clan might
live in a longhouse, each family having its own section.
The
Mohicans' lives were rooted in the woodlands in which they
lived. These were covered with red spruce, elm, pine, oak,
birch and maple trees. Black bear, deer, moose, beaver,
otter, bobcat, mink and other animals thrived in the woods, as
well as wild turkeys and pheasants. The sparkling rivers
teemed with herring, shad, trout and other fish. Oyster
beds were found beneath the river's overhanging banks for some
distance up the Mahicannituck. Berries, cherries and nuts
were abundant. It was a rich life.
Mohican women generally were in charge of the home, children and
gardens, while men traveled greater distances to hunt, fish or
serve as warriors. After the hunts and harvests, meat,
vegetables and berries were dried. These along with smoked
fish were stored in pits dug deep in the ground and lined with
grass or bark.
During the cold winter months, utensils and containers were
carved, hunting, trapping and fishing gear were repaired,
baskets and pottery were created, and closing was fashioned and
decorated with colorfully dyed porcupine quills, shells and
other gifts from nature.
Winter
was also the time of teaching. Storytellers told
the children how life came to be, how the earth was
created, why the leaves turn red and so on.
Historians also related the story of the people: how
they learned to sing, the story of their drums and
rattles, what the stars could teach them. Children
learned the ways of the Mohicans, their extended family:
how to relate to each person, as well as to all the
gifts of the Creator, and how to live with respect and
peace in their community. They also learned that
they had responsibilities, so they began to learn skill.
In
early spring, the people set up camp in the Sugar Bush.
Tapping the trees, gathering the sap and boiling it to make
maple syrup and sugar was a ceremony welcoming spring.
There were many ceremonies during the year whenever something
needed special "paying attention to," such as planting of the
first seeds - the corn, beans and squash - and the time of the
harvest.
The
Munsee, part of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware people settled near
the headwaters of the Delaware River just west of the Mohicans.
Their lifestyles and languages were similar to those of the
Mohicans.
Mohican Territory
The
Mohican lands extended from what is now Lake Champlain south
nearly to Manhattan Island and on both sides of the Mahicannituck (Hudson River), west to Scoharie
Creek and east into Massachusetts, Vermont and
Connecticut.
The
Mohicans never forgot that they were relatives of many other
tribes who had traveled with them over the centuries.
Mohican leaders often sent warriors to assist their allies when
they were in danger of being attacked. But these were temporary
alliances and did not result in a powerful confederacy such as
that of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois.
The Coming of
the Europeans
In
September 1609, Henry Hudson, a trader for the Dutch, sailed up
the Mahicannituck into the lands of the Mohicans. He found
himself in an area rich in beaver and otter, the kinds of furs
the Dutch most coveted. By 1614 a Dutch trading post was
established on an island later named Castle Island.
As
the fur trade expanded and furs became more difficult to find,
tensions developed between the Mohicans and the Mohawks, Haudenosaunee people to the west. Each group wanted to
maintain its share of the fur trade business, as well as retain
friendly relations with their European allies. Not only
did conflicts occur between the Mohicans and the Mohawks, but
the Native people were also caught in wars among the Dutch,
English and French. The Mohicans were eventually driven
from their territory west of the Mahicannituck. In the
early 1700's, indebtedness, questionable land purchases and
cultural conflicts caused them to move farther east near the
Housatonic River in what were to become Massachusetts and
Connecticut.
The
Mohican economic pattern was greatly changed by contact with the
Europeans. They stopped making many traditional items
because new tools, iron kettles, cloth, guns and colorful glass
beads were available at the trading posts. The English,
who eventually replaced the Dutch in this area, chose to
"civilize" all the Native people in what they called "New
England." The vast lands, which the Mohicans had used for
gardens, hunting and fishing, began to have boundary lines and
fences when shared with non-Indians. Since their lands
were declared to belong to European monarchs by "right of
discovery," they found that they could not defend their
ownership in the courts of the colonists. As more and more
Europeans arrived, the Mohicans, like other Native people who
had traditionally depended upon themselves and the resources of
Mother Earth, found themselves dependent on white people and
what they could provide.
The
coming of the Europeans into the lands of the Mohicans affected
them in another catastrophic way. Europeans brought
diseases with them: smallpox, measles, diphtheria, scarlet
fever. Native people, unfamiliar with these diseases, had
not built up an immunity to them, and hundreds of thousands -
sometimes whole villages at a time - perished. These
diseases greatly decreased the number of Mohicans.
European Christians with missionary zeal also entered Native
villages for the purpose of converting the people from their
traditional spiritual practices to Christianity. Some
Native people, noting that the Europeans seemed to be prospering
in this new land, felt that perhaps the Europeans' God was more
powerful, and agreed to be missionized. In 1734, a
missionary named John Sergeant came to live with the Mohicans in
their village of Wnahktukuk. He earnestly preached the
Christian religion, baptized those who accepted his teaching,
and gave them Christian names such as John, Rebekah, Timothy,
Mary and Abraham.
In
1738, the Mohicans gave John Sergeant permission to start a
mission in the village. Eventually, the European
inhabitants gave this place the name "Stockbridge," after a
village in England. It was located on the Housatonic River
near a great meadow bounded by the beautiful Berkshire Mountains
in western Massachusetts. In this mission village, a
church and school were built. The Mohicans, we well as
other Native people who relocated there, became known as the
"Stockbridge Indians."
Between 1700 and 1800, European countries battled for control of
the land called America. The French and Indian Wars were
really conflicts between England and France over territories
they had taken from the Native people who were recruited to help
them fight. The Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 were
fought between the American colonists and England. The
"Americanized" colonies no longer wanted to be governed by the
Mother country. The Stockbridge Mohicans, as well as the
Oneida, Tuscarora and other Native warriors, supported the
colonists in their revolution. In one battle, the Battle
of Van Cortlandt's Woods, a number of Stockbridge Mohicans lost
their lives. When the surviving warriors returned home,
they discovered that plans had already been made to remove them
from Stockbridge.
The
lives of the Mohican people were drastically changed by the fur
trade, European missionaries, disease and war. All of
these worked together to cause of breakdown in their traditional
Mohican life and beliefs. Their spiritual ceremonies were
replaced by European customs. Fewer and fewer of the
people spoke the Mohican language; thus their thought patterns
about the natural world were altered. The ancient arts of
basket and pottery making continued, but other seasonal
occupations were abandoned. In order to survive, the
Stockbridge Mohicans adopted the trades and behaviors of their
non-Indian neighbors: farming, lumbering, worshipping in church,
sending their children to schools. But, as the eighteenth
century neared its last twenty years, their lives were to change
even more drastically.
Removals
Westward
It
became apparent after the Revolutionary War, with their numbers
greatly reduced and intruders (called "settlers") using
unscrupulous means to gain title to the land, that the
Stockbridge Mohican people were not welcome in their own
Christian village any longer. The Oneida, who had also
fought for the colonists in the war, offered them a portion of
their rich farmland and forest. The Stockbridge Mohican
accepted the invitation and moved to New Stockbridge, near
Oneida Lake, in the mid-1780's. Again they cleared forests
and built farms. A school, church, and sawmill were built.
The tribe flourished under the leadership of Joseph Quinney and
his counselors.
But land
companies, desirous of making profits from the land,
proposed that New York State remove all Indians from
within its borders. The pressure for removal was
great. John Sergeant recorded in his journal of
August 1818, "About one-third of my church and
one-fourth of the tribe (70 souls) started from this
place for "White River." Their leader, John
Metoxen, led the group to the White River area in what
is now Indiana to settle among their relatives, the
Miami and the Delaware. When they reached their
destination, after about a year, they found that the
Delaware had already been coerced into selling their
land.
Meanwhile, missionaries, agents from the State of New York and
commissioners from the War Department were negotiating with the
Menominee and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) for a large tract of land on
which to relocate the New York Indians in what is now Wisconsin.
A treaty was negotiated in 1822. The Stockbridge Mohicans
were on the move again. The group that had traveled to
Indiana with John Metoxen were the first to arrive on the Fox
River at Grand Cackalin (Kaukauna), also called Statesburg.
For the next several years, those who had remained in
New York followed, traveling by foot, wagon or sometimes
steamship on the Great Lakes.
Perhaps the first English-speaking people in the state were in
the John Metoxen group. Electa Quinney, the first public
school teacher in Wisconsin, was a Stockbridge Indian
woman. The first Protestant minister, as well as
the first Christian Temperance Union, came with the
Stockbridge Mohican people. Again they established
a church and a school.
Meanwhile, the federal government was forcing Indian nations to
agree to land session treaties, often physically moving them to
lands far distant and different from their original homelands.
In 1832, Congress had enacted President Andrew Jackson's Indian
Removal Act by which all Indians from the east would be moved to
lands west of the Mississippi River. A group of
Stockbridge Mohicans, fearing the inevitable, moved to Indian
territory in 1839. Many died while making this journey.
Some reached Kansas and Oklahoma and married into other tribes.
Most simply gave up and returned to Wisconsin, which had gained
statehood in 1848.
During this period a group of Munsee joined the people at
Stockbridge, Wisconsin, and were accepted into the community.
Known as first as the Stockbridge and Munsee, eventually this
community was simply called the "Stockbridge-Munsee."
The
federal removal policy caused dissension among the people who
remained in Wisconsin, which led to political divisions in the
tribe. Presented with the opportunity by government
agents, some Stockbridge people relinquished their Indian status
and became tax paying citizens of the United States, while
others chose to retain their tribal membership and form of
government. New lands were explored, new moves considered.
As a result of the Treaty of 1856, the Stockbridge and Munsee
moved to the townships of Red Springs and Bartelme in Shawano
County. But the conflict between the Citizen Party and
Indian Party was to have repercussions for many years to come.
Reservation
In the late 1800's, almost every
Native nation in the United States had been assigned to
reservations. The reservation land of the
Stockbridge-Munsee was mostly covered with pine forest.
Farming was attempted but the land was sandy and swampy
and so forestry became the base of the economy.
However, services promised in treaties were inadequate
and of poor quality. Poverty prevailed for most
people. Treasured wampum belts and other cultural
artifacts, craft materials and even traditional clothing
were sold to collectors for a pittance.
In
1887 the General Allotment Act was passed by Congress.
This law divided up reservation lands and allotted portions to
individual people. This was not new to the Stockbridge
Mohicans, whose lands had been allotted in Massachusetts, New
York, Kaukauna and "down below" in Stockbridge. The policy
proved to be a very successful way of removing land from tribes
by making it possible to deal with individuals who had little
experience with private ownership. Some people who needed
money sold their allotments to business dealers who wanted the
forest for lumbering. Some dealers connived to get the
land, and some elements were built into the Act of 1887 allowing
lumber barons to secure unallotted lands. This happened on
the Stockbridge Reservation. The lumbering companies cut
down the trees and moved out, leaving land with little economic
value.
Some
families sold lakeshore property in order to make their mortgage
payments on land they had purchased or to which they held title.
Other Indian individuals lost their allotments because they were
unable to meet tax or loan payments. Thus the tribe began
to see its reservation land disappear. Hard times
continued and grew even worse during the Great Depression in the
1930's.
Some
Americans were disturbed by the conditions to which Native
people had been reduced and by the prohibitions that had been
placed on them. Such a person was John Collier, an
advocate for American Indian people. After he was
appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by Franklin Roosevelt,
he prevailed upon Congress to pass the Indian Reorganization
Act (IRA). This law made it possible for Indian communities to
get funds from the federal government to reorganize their tribal
governments and retrieve some of the lands which they had lost.
The IRA, along with the tenacity of dedicated tribal leaders
during the hard years of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries - leaders such as Carl Miller and others - made
possible the continuation of the Stockbridge-Munsee people as a
nation.
It
is ironic that the Stockbridge-Munsee regained about 15,000
acres in the township of Bartelme. This western portion of
the reservation lands had been clear cut, making it sub marginal
or useless and therefore eligible for repurchase for American
Indian use. Of the total 15,000 acres, however, only about
2,500 were placed in trust for the tribe, now officially called
the "Stockbridge-Munsee Band of Mohican Indians." Shortly
after the mid-1930's, families began moving into the rough
buildings that were once the headquarters of the Brooks and Ross
Lumber Company. By the end of 1937. the tribe had a new
constitution based on a Bureau of Indian Affairs model, and the
Stockbridge-Munsee had a land base on which to rebuild homes for
the people.
A
new tribal council was elected with Harry A. Chicks as its
president. The second president, Arvid E. Miller, was a
leader of his people for twenty-six years. He was one of
the founders of both the National Congress of American Indians
and the Great Lakes Inter-Tribal Council. In 1972. the
remaining 13,000 acres of land were placed in trust, and tribal
members received compensation (about eighty cents an acre) for
lands that been taken in eastern Wisconsin.
Stockbridge-Munsee Today
Today, on Shawano County Road A in northeastern Wisconsin, a new
sign announces the reservation of the MOHICAN NATION. Circling
the Many Trails symbol are the words "Stockbridge-Munsee Band of
Mohican Indians." The term "Mohican Nation" acknowledges
the tribe's sovereignty and its government relationship with
federal, states, county and township governments. The
words "Stockbridge-Munsee Band of Mohican Indians" acknowledge
the people's history.
The
Stockbridge-Munsee Community is still located on this
reservation in Wisconsin, although enrolled tribal members live
in other parts of Wisconsin, the Untied States and the world.
The reservation boundaries encompass the two townships of Red
Springs and Bartelme.
Some
of the tribe's families live on trust land which is assigned to
tribal members for their use. Others live on privately
owned lands within the reservation boundaries, as do some
non-Indians. Approximately half of the tribal population
of about 1,500 live on or near the reservation.
Over
the past sixty-some years, the Stockbridge-Munsee have not only
survived but the community has grown in many ways. First
of all, the forests have returned, and with the forests so have
deer, bear, waterfowl, wild turkeys and other animals.
People have reported seeing a white deer and also a cougar.
Some
of the homes still provide shelter, including a few stone
houses that are now on the National Historic Registry.
However, mobile homes, apartments and more and more permanent
homes continue to add to the housing opportunities on the
reservation. New apartments for the elderly, called the Moshuebee Apartments, are attached to the Elderly Center where
meals and other activities are provided.
Numerous structures are needed to house the
tribal government, the
tribal court,
legal department,
Mohican News,
tribal administration and
roads departments. The
Mohican Family Center features
a full-size gym, exercise room, aerobics room and youth center.
In addition, a new comprehensive
Health and Wellness Center,
including medical and dental and behavioral health facilities,
has recently opened.
The
Pine Hills Golf Course has expanded to eighteen holes, and
the new
Supper Club provides fine dining on weekends. The
original clubhouse has also been expanded and serves as a
Many Trails Meeting Hall and Banquet Facility. The
sand filter/waste-water treatment facility will provide
drinkable water to parts of the reservation and several roads
are newly paved.
The
pow-wow grounds have been groomed for the annual gathering
which is held the second week of August. Sweat lodges are
used frequently, at many sites on the reservation.
The North Star Mohican Casino can be credited with much of the Mohican Nation's economic progress. The casino is the largest employer in Shawano County. Over half of the 600 employees are non-Mohicans. The casino also contributes to the economy of the county. Numerous busses arrive at the casino daily; deliveries of casino and bingo supplies, foods and beverages, fuel, paper products, cleaning supplies and other necessities attest to the economic contributions of the casino in the area. The recently opened Little Star Gas Station and Convenience Store provides employment and services.
The children from the reservation attend school in the Bowler and Gresham Public Schools. Many of the high school graduates go on to college, technical school or a university. Tribal members hold degrees in law, medicine, education, engineering, architecture, science, fine arts and other disciplines. The Stockbridge-Munsee Education Board oversees programs meant to encourage students to progress in and advance their education.
Back in the early 1970's, Bernice Miller requested a space from the Tribal Council for the purpose of preserving the papers and artifacts of her late husband, Arvid E. Miller. An active historical committee, consisting of Elders and anyone else interested in tribal history, committed themselves to gathering everything that is know about the Stockbridge-Munsee/Mohican people. A "ditto-machine" newspaper was started and shared community news for about ten years.
Gathering history required travel to homelands in the east. Since 1969 at least twenty research trips have been made. Traveling in caravans of autos or by bus, youth and elders have visited the Mission House and burial grounds in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Many climbed Monument Mountain. Research has been done in the Stockbridge Historical Room, the New York State Historical Library in Albany, the Huntington Library in New York City and in numerous other libraries and museums.
The research library includes books, hand-written letters, notes, maps, photos, genealogy records and more.
The museum collection includes: baskets made of splints and birch bark, arrowheads, stone axes, war clubs, and other original artifacts.
Through Repatriation artifacts recently returned to the library Museum include a wampum belt and ceremonial pipes.
As a result, the Arvid E. Miller Memorial Library is an excellent resource for students and scholars involved in research. The Library/Museum welcomes visitors from near and far daily.
For
more information you may visit our Tribal Websites:
www.mohican-nsn.gov
www.mohican.com
www.northstarcasinoresort.com
We
hope that you learned and enjoyed our history.
Acknowledgements
~to members of the Stockbridge-Munsee Historical Committee for their comments and suggestions to improve the historical accuracy of this brief history of our people
~to Ruth Gudinas for her careful editing of this text
~to Jeff Vele of the Mohican News, our nations newspaper
~to Chad Miller of the Land Resource Management Office for his preparation of maps