Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba
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Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba (Spanish: Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, tercer duque de Alba; October 29, 1507–December 11, 1582) was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands (1567-1573), nicknamed "the Iron Duke" by Protestants of the Low Countries because of his harsh vice-regency. Tales of atrocities committed during his military operations in Flanders became part of Dutch and English folklore, forming a new and central component of the Black Legend.
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[edit] Early life
Alba's grandfather, Fadrique Alvarez de Toledo, educated him in military science and politics; and he was engaged with distinction at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, while still a youth.
Selected for a military command by Charles V, he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and successfully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He was present at the Battle of Mühlberg (1547), and the victory gained there over the Prince-Elector Johann Friederich of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent successful siege of Wittenberg defended by the Electress, Sybille, following which Alba presided at the court-martial which tried the Prince-Elector and condemned him to death as a rebel against the Emperor, wringing from him the Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547), in which he was compelled to resign the electoral dignity and a great part of his territory to his cousin Maurice.
In 1552 Alba was entrusted with the command of the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for several months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. In consequence of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy, and at the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and after several unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters.
After the abdication of Charles V he was continued in the command by Philip II, who, however, restrained him from extreme measures. Alba had subdued the whole Campagna and was at the gates of Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate a peace.
Not long after this (1559) he was sent at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of Philip, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France. These negotiations led to the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis.
[edit] Netherlands
In 1567, Philip, who was a zealous opponent of Protestantism, sent Alba into the Netherlands at the head of an army of 12,000 men, with unlimited powers for the subjugation of the Dutch protestant rebels. Alba quickly composed a tribunal, the Council of Troubles, which became known to the Calvinists as the "Council of Blood," to try all persons who had been engaged in the rebellion against Philip. During the ten years that it operated, thousands of people were punished. The precise number is disputed: Dutch sources cite 18,000 victims, while Spanish accounts mention only a few hundred executions. The best estimate is that about 12,000 sentences were pronounced of which 1,083 were executions[1]. Alba imprisoned the Count of Egmont and the Count of Hoorn, the two popular leaders of the dissatisfied Dutch nobles, and had them condemned to death even though they were Catholics.
Alba attempted to raise money by imposing the Spanish alcabala, a tax of 10% on all sales ("tenth penny" tax) on the Low Countries, and this aroused the opposition of many Dutch Catholic as well. The exiles from the Low Countries, who called themselves Geuzen (French gueux, "beggars"), encouraged by the general resistance to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after strengthening themselves by successful piracy, seized the town of Den Briel (Brielle). Thus Alba, by his unrelenting harshness towards both protestants and Catholics as well, who tended to unite with protestants against him, became the unacknowledged author of the future independence of the seven Dutch provinces.
On August 22, Alba, accompanied by a body of select Spanish troops, made his entry into Brussels. He immediately appointed a council to condemn without trial those suspected of heresy and rebellion. On June 1, 1568, Brussels witnessed the simultaneous decapitation of twenty-two noblemen; on 6 June followed the execution of the Counts of Egmond and Hoorne.
The fleet of the exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, defeated it and reduced Holland and Mons. The States of Holland, assembling at Dordrecht in 1572, openly declared against Alba's government, and marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange.
Alba's preparations to defeat the gathering storm were made with his usual immediacy and vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechelen and Zutphen, placing the army under the command of his son Don Fadrique. All three cities were sacked and many civilians were killed as well. With the exception of Zeeland and Holland, he regained all the provinces. At last his son stormed Naarden, massacring everyone in the city.[2], proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but Alba was running low on money, and there they met such stubborn resistance that he was forced to retire.
[edit] Retirement and disgrace
Alba's age, poor health health and endless difficulties induced him to solicit his recall from the government of the Low Countries. In December 1573 Philip accepted his resignation and replaced him with Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens.
On his return to Spain he was treated for some time with great distinction by Philip, until an illicit love affair of Don Fadrique dragged Alba into disgrace as well . Alba was banished from court and retired to his castle at Uzeda. There he remained for two years.
[edit] In Portugal
Alba remained in exile at his castle until 1580, when the success of Dom António in assuming the crown of Portugal caused Philip to turn to Alba as the man whose acknowledged military ability and fidelity he could most rely on.
Made supreme commander, Alba quickly invaded Portugal and defeated António in the Battle of Alcântara, drove him from the kingdom, and reduced Portugal to the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon he seized an immense treasure, and allowed his soldiers to sack the suburbs and surrounding communities.
Alba, however, did not enjoy the honors and rewards of this, his last expedition. He died at Lisbon on December 11, 1582 (see War of the Portuguese Succession).
[edit] Ancestry
| Fernando Álvarez de Toledo | Father: Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo 2nd Duke of Alba |
Paternal Grandfather: García Álvarez de Toledo 1st Duke of Alba |
Paternal Great-grandfather: Fernán Alvarez de Toledo, Count of Alba de Tormes |
| Paternal Great-grandmother: Mencia Carrillo, Lady of Bercimuelle |
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| Paternal Grandmother: María Enriquez |
Paternal Great-grandfather: Fadrique Enriquez, Admiral of Castile |
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| Paternal Great-grandmother: Teresa de Quiñones |
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| Mother: Isabel de Zuñiga y Pimentel |
Maternal Grandfather: Álvaro de Zuñiga, Duke of Plasencia |
Maternal Great-grandfather: Pedro de Zúñiga, Count of Ledesma |
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| Maternal Great-grandmother: Isabel de Guzmán |
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| Maternal Grandmother: Leonor de Pimentel |
Maternal Great-grandfather: Juan Alfonso Pimentel, Count of Mayorga |
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| Maternal Great-grandmother: Elvira de Zuñiga |
[edit] References
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The article is available here
- Henry Kamen, The duke of Alba (New Haven–London: Yale University Press, 2004), Pp. x + 204.
| Spanish nobility | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo |
Duke of Alba 1531 - December 11, 1582 |
Succeeded by Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo |
| Government offices | ||
| Preceded by Ferdinando Gonzaga |
Governors of the Duchy of Milan 1555-1556 |
Succeeded by Cardinal Cristoforo Madruzzo |
| Preceded by Margaret of Austria |
Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands 1567-1573 |
Succeeded by Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens |
| Preceded by conquest of the kingdom |
Spanish Viceroy of Portugal 1580-1582 |
Succeeded by Cardinal Albert, Archduke of Austria |