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Anti-Plagiarism Strategies for Research Papers
Robert Harris
Version Date: November 17, 2004
The availability of textual material in electronic format has made plagiarism
easier than ever. Copying and pasting of paragraphs or even entire
essays now can be performed with just a few mouse clicks. The strategies
discussed here can be used to combat what some believe is an increasing
amount of plagiarism on research papers. By employing these strategies,
you can help encourage students to value the assignment and to do their
own work.
Strategies of Awareness
1. Understand why students cheat. By understanding some
of the reasons students are tempted to cheat on papers, you can take steps
to prevent cheating by attacking the causes. Some of the major reasons
include these:
-
Students are natural economizers. Many students are interested in
the shortest route possible through a course. That's why they ask
questions such as, "Will this be on the test?" Copying a paper sometimes
looks a the shortcut through an assignment, especially when the student
feels overloaded with work already. To combat this cause, assign
your paper to be due well before the end-of-term pressures. Remind
students that the purpose of the course is to learn and develop skills
and not just "get through." The more they learn and develop their
skills, the more effective they will be in their future lives.
-
Students are faced with too many choices, so they put off low priorities.
With so many things to do (both of academic and recreational nature), many
students put off assignments that do not interest them. A remedy
here would be to customize the research topic to include something of real
interest to the students or to offer topics with high intrinsic interest
to them.
-
Many students have poor time management and planning skills. Some
students are just procrastinators, while others do not understand the hours
required to develop a good research paper, and they run out of time as
the due date looms. Thus, they are most tempted to copy a paper when
time is short and they have not yet started the assignment. If you
structure your research assignment so that intermediate parts of it (topic,
early research, prospectus, outline, draft, bibliography, final draft)
are due at regular intervals, students will be less likely to get in a
time-pressure panic and look for an expedient shortcut.
-
Some students fear that their writing ability is inadequate. Fear
of a bad grade and inability to perform cause some students to look for
a superior product. Sadly, these students are among those least able
to judge a good paper and are often likely to turn in a very poor copied
one. Some help for these students may come from demonstrating how
poor many of the online papers are and by emphasizing the value of the
learning process (more on this below). Reassuring students of the
help available to them (your personal attention, a writing center, teaching
assistants, online writing lab sites, etc.) may give them the courage to
persevere.
-
A few students like the thrill of rule breaking. The more angrily
you condemn plagiarism, the more they can hardly wait to do it. An
approach that may have some effect is to present the assignment and the
proper citation of sources in a positive light (more below).
2. Educate yourself about plagiarism. Plagiarism on research papers
takes many forms. Some of the most common include these:
-
Downloading a free research paper. Many of these papers have been
written and shared by other students. Since paper swappers are often
not among the best students, free papers are often of poor quality, in
both mechanics and content. Some of the papers are surprisingly old
(with citations being no more recent than the seventies).
-
Buying a paper from a commercial paper mill. These papers can be
good--and sometimes they are too good. If you have given students
an in-class writing assignment, you can compare the quality and be quite
enlightened. Moreover, mills often sell both custom and stock papers,
with custom papers becoming stock papers very quickly. If you
visit some of the mill sites, you might just find the same paper available
for sale by searching by title or subject.
-
Copying an article from the Web or an online or electronic database.
Only some of these articles will have the quantity and type of citations
that academic research papers are expected to have. If you receive
a well-written, highly informed essay without a single citation (or with
just a few), it may have been copied wholesale from an electronic source.
-
Copying a paper from a local source. Papers may be copied from students
who have taken your course previously, from fraternity files, or from other
paper-sharing sources near campus. If you keep copies of previous
papers turned in to you, they can be a source of detection of this particular
practice.
-
Cutting and pasting to create a paper from several sources. These
"assembly-kit" papers are often betrayed by wide variations in tone, diction,
and citation style. The introduction and conclusion are often student-written
and therefore noticeably different from and weaker than the often glowing
middle.
-
Quoting less than all the words copied. This practice includes premature
end quotation marks or missing quotation marks. A common type of
plagiarism occurs when a student quotes a sentence or two, places the end
quotation mark and the citation, and then continues copying from the source.
Or the student may copy from the source verbatim without any quotation
marks at all, but adding a citation, implying that the information is the
student's summary of the source. Checking the citation will expose
this practice.
-
Faking a citation. In lieu of real research, some students will make
up quotations and supply fake citations. You can discover this practice
by randomly checking citations. If you require several Web or other
electronic sources for the paper, these can be checked quickly.
Visting some of the sites that give away or sell research papers can be
an informative experience. If you have Web projection capability,
you might do this visiting in class and show the students (1) that you
know about these sites and (2) that the papers are often well below your
expectations for quality, timeliness, and research. There is a list of
many of these sites at Termpapers.com
at http://www.termpapers.com and at "Internet
Paper Mills" at http://www.coastal.edu/library/mills2.htm.
3. Educate your students about plagiarism. Do not assume that
students know what plagiarism is, even if they nod their heads when you
ask them. Provide an explicit definition for them. For example, "Plagiarism
is using another person's words or ideas without giving credit to the other
person. When you use someone else's words, you must put quotation marks
around them and give the writer or speaker credit by revealing the source
in a citation. Even if you revise or paraphrase the words of someone else
or just use their ideas, you still must give the author credit in a note.
Not giving due credit to the creator of an idea or writing is very much
like lying."
In addition to a definition, though, you should discuss with your students
the difference between appropriate, referenced use of ideas or quotations
and inappropriate use. You might show them an example of a permissible
paraphrase (with its citation) and an impermissible paraphrase (containing
some paraphrasing and some copying), and discuss the difference. Discuss
also quoting a passage and using quotation marks and a citation as opposed
to quoting a passage with neither (in other words, merely copying without
attribution). Such a discussion should educate those who truly do not understand
citation issues ("But I put it in my own words, so I didn't think I had
to cite it") and it will also warn the truly dishonest that you are watching.
Discussing with students why plagiarism is wrong may be helpful also.
Clarifying for them that plagiarism is a combination of stealing (another's
words) and lying (claiming implicitly that the words are the student's
own) should be mentioned at some point, but should not be the whole emphasis
or you risk setting up a challenge for the rebels (those who like to break
the rules just for fun). Many statements on plagiarism also remind
students that such cheating shows contempt for the professor, other students,
and the entire academic enterprise. Plagiarizers by their actions
declare that they are not at the university to gain an education, but only
to pretend to do so, and that they therefore intend to gain by fraud the
credentials (the degree) of an educated person.
Perhaps the most effective discussion will ask the students to think
about who is really being cheated when someone plagiarizes. Copying
papers or even parts of papers short circuits a number of learning experiences
and opportunities for the development of skills: actually doing the work
of the research paper rather than counterfeiting it gives the student not
only knowledge of the subject and insights into the world of information
and controversy, but improves research skills, thinking and analyzing,
organizing, writing, planning and time management, and even meticulousness
(those picky citation styles actually help improve one's attention to detail).
All this is missed when the paper is faked, and it is these missed skills
which will be of high value in the working world. A degree will help
students get a first job, but performance--using the skills developed by
doing just such assignments as research papers--will be required for promotion.
4. Discuss the benefits of citing sources. Many students do not
seem to realize that whenever they cite a source, they are strengthening
their writing. Citing a source, whether paraphrased or quoted, reveals
that they have performed research work and synthesized the findings into
their own argument. Using sources shows that the student in engaged in
"the great conversation," the world of ideas, and that the student is aware
of other thinkers' positions on the topic. By quoting (and citing) writers
who support the student's position, the student adds strength to the position.
By responding reasonably to those who oppose the position, the student
shows that there are valid counter arguments. In a nutshell, citing helps
make the essay stronger and sounder and will probably result in a better
grade.
Appropriate quoting and citing also evidences the student's respect
for the creators of ideas and arguments--honoring thinkers and their intellectual
property. Most college graduates will become knowledge workers themselves,
earning at least part of their living creating information products.
They therefore have an interest in maintaining a respect for intellectual
property and the proper attribution of ideas and words.
5. Make the penalties clear. If an institutional policy exists,
quote it in your syllabus. If you have your own policy, specify the penalties
involved. For example, "Cheating on a paper will result in an F on that
paper with no possibility of a makeup. A second act of cheating will result
in an F in the course regardless of the student's grade otherwise." If
you teach at a university where the penalty for plagiarism is dismissal
from the university or being reported to the Academic Dean or Dean of Students,
you should make that clear as well. Even the penalties can be presented
in a positive light. Penalties exist to reassure honest students
that their efforts are respected and valued, so much so that those who
would escape the work by fakery will be punished substantially.
Strategies of Prevention
The overall goal of these specific strategies is to make the assignment
and requirements unique enough that an off-the-shelf paper or a paper written
for another class or a friend's paper will not fulfill the requirements.
Only a newly written paper will.
1. Make the assignment clear. Be specific about your
expectations. Should the paper be an individual effort or is collaboration
permitted? Must the paper be unique to your course, or do you allow
it to be submitted to another course as well? (In scholarly publishing,
such multiple publication is usually called self-plagiarism. If you require
a unique paper, be sure to prohibit photocopied papers and insist on original
typescripts or printouts.) What kind of research do you require?
How should it be evidenced in the paper, by quotation or just summary?
It has been claimed that a major source of poor student papers (not just
plagiarizing) is the unclear assignment. You might ask another faculty
member to read your paper assignment and discuss with you whether or not
it is clear and detailed enough for students to fulfill in the way you
intend.
2. Provide a list of specific topics and require students to
choose one of them. Change topics from semester to semester whenever possible.
Unusual topics or topics with a narrow twist are good because there will
be fewer papers already written on them. If you provide a substantial enough
list of topics (say two dozen), most students will find something that
can interest them. You can also allow for a custom topic if the student
comes to discuss it with you first.
3. Require specific components in the paper. For example, "The
paper must make use of two Internet sources, two printed book sources,
two printed journal sources, one personal interview, and one personally
conducted survey." Or, "You must make use of Wells' article on 'Intelligent
Design Principles,' and some material from either the Jones or Smith book."
Or, "Include a graph which represents the data discussed in the first section."
Requirements that will strongly inhibit the use of a copied paper include
these:
-
Use of one or more sources written within the past year. A requirement
like this will quickly outdate most paper mill products.
-
Use of one or more specific articles or books you name or provide.
The articles could be available online (from the Web or one of your university's
proprietary databases) to save the effort of photocopying and distribution.
-
Incorporation of some information you provide (for example, a data set).
-
A personal interview with an expert or authority. An interview creates
both a current and a checkable source.
If a student begins with someone else's paper and has to work additional
material such as the above into it, you'll probably be able to tell. (For
example, the fit will be awkward where the new material has been stuffed
in or the writing styles will differ.)
4. Require process steps for the paper. Set a series of
due dates throughout the term for the various steps of the research paper
process: topic or problem, preliminary bibliography, prospectus, research
material (annotated photocopies of articles, for example), outline, rough
draft, final annotated bibliography, final draft. Some of these parts can
be reverse engineered by the determined cheater, but most students should
realize that doing the assignment honestly is easier than the alternative.
The rough draft serves several functions. A quick glance will
reveal whether whole sections are appearing without citations. At the draft
stage, you have the opportunity to educate the student further and discuss
how proper citation works. You can also mark places and ask for more research
material to be incorporated. If you are suspicious of the paper at this
point, ask for the incorporation of some specific material that you name,
such as a particular book or article. Keep the drafts and let students
know that you expect major revisions and improvements between drafts. (This
is actually a great way to improve students' writing, quite apart from
the other goal of preventing plagairism.)
5. Require oral reports of student papers. Ask students questions
about their research and writing process. If students know at the beginning
of the term that they will be giving a presentation on their research papers
to the rest of the class, they will recognize the need to be very familiar
with both the process and the content of the paper. Such knowledge
should serve as a strong deterrent against simply copying a paper.
Regardless of how many times a student reads over a copied paper, much
of the knowledge of the research, the drafting, leaving out, and so on
will still remain unknown. Alternative to an in-class presentation
is a one-on-one office meeting, where you can quiz the student about several
aspects of the paper as needed.
Many students have been caught by simple questions like, "What exactly
do you mean here by 'dynamic equivalence'?" Few students use words they
cannot pronounce, so having them read some of the paper aloud can be interesting
as well (although you may be merely exposing the mindless use of a thesaurus).
If you suspect a student has copied a whole paper, complete with citations,
asking about the sources can be useful. "Where did you find the article
by Edwards? It sounds fascinating. Can you bring me a copy at the
next meeting?" Or, "This quotation seems slightly out of context. What
was Follet's main point in the chapter?"
6. Have students include an annotated bibliography. The annotation
should include a brief summary of the source, where it was located (including
call number for books or complete Web URL), and an evaluation about the
usefulness of the source. (Optionally, as a lesson in information quality,
ask them to comment on why they thought the source credible.) The
normal process of research makes completing this task easy, but it creates
headaches for students who have copied a paper from someone else since
few papers include annotated bibliographies like this. Another benefit
of this assignment is that students must reflect on the reliability and
quality of their sources.
7. Require most references to be up-to-date. Many of the free
term papers online (and many of the ones for sale) are quite old, with
correspondingly old references. If you require all research material to
be, say, less than five years old, you will automatically eliminate thousands
of online papers. Such a recent date restriction is not usually workable
for some subjects, such as history or English literature, but you can always
require a few sources of recent date.
8. Require a metalearning essay. On the day you collect the papers,
have students write an in-class essay about what they learned from the
assignment. What problems did they face and how did they overcome them?
What research strategy did they follow? Where did they locate most
of their sources? What is the most important thing they learned from investigating
this subject? For most students, who actually did the research paper,
this assignment will help them think about their own learning. It also
provides you with information about the students' knowledge of their papers
and it gives you a writing sample to compare with the papers. If a student's
knowledge of the paper and its process seems modest or if the in-class
essay quality diverges strikingly from the writing ability shown in the
paper, further investigation is probably warranted.
Strategies of Detection
1. Look for the clues. As you read the papers, look
for internal evidence that may indicate plagiarism. Among the clues
are the following:
-
Mixed citation styles. If some paragraphs are cited in MLA style,
while other references are in APA, and perhaps one or two are in CBE or
Chicago, you are probably looking at a paste-up.
-
Lack of references or quotations. Lengthy, well written sections
without documentation may have been taken from general knowledge sources,
such as encyclopedias, popular magazines, or Web sites.
-
Unusual formatting. Strange margins, skewed tables, lines broken
in half, mixed subhead styles and other formatting anomalies may indicate
a hasty copy and paste job.
-
Off topic. If the paper does not develop one of the assigned topics
or even the topic it announces, it may have been borrowed at the last minute
or downloaded. Similarly, if parts of the paper do develop the subject,
but other parts seem oddly off, the product may be a cut and paste.
-
Signs of datedness. If there are no references after some well past
date (e.g. 1985), or if a data table offers a company's sales from 1989
to 1994, either the student is using very old material or the paper itself
is rather old.
-
Anachronisms. If the paper refers to long-past events as current
("Only after the Gulf War is over will we see lower oil prices" or "Why
isn't the Carter administration acting on this?"), you almost certainly
have a recycled paper on your hands.
-
Anomalies of diction. Many undergraduates do not understand the concept
of levels of diction. They think all words are equally welcome in
every paper. As a result, when those who plagiarize with the cut-and-paste
method perform their deeds, they often mix paragraphs of varying levels
together--the sophisticated scholar's paragraph precedes the breezy journalist's
commentary, which may be followed by the student's own highly colloquial
addition. Similarly, you may come upon some suspiciously elevated vocabulary
usages. "Thesaurusitis" is one source of this, to be sure, but a
common source of such vocabulary is another writer, who should have been
quoted rather than simply copied. "What do you mean by 'ineffable'?"
can sometimes provide you with inexpressible information. Lastly,
if you find that the paper uses several archaic terms, or words no longer
used in the way the paper uses them, you may be looking at some very old
text.
-
Anomalies of style. Is the prose style remarkable? Are there two-page
paragraphs that remind you of a nineteenth-century encyclopedia? Is there
ornate rhetorical structure? Does the introduction get in its own
way and stumble around, only to give way to glowing, flowing discourse?
Is there a mixture of British and American punctuation or spelling, with
consistent usage within large sections?
-
Smoking guns. This category might be called "blunders of the clueless,"
since it includes obvious indicators of copying. Reported in the
past have been labels left at the end of papers ("Thank you for using TermPaperMania"),
title pages stapled to Web printouts (complete with dates and URL in the
corners), title pages claiming the paper is by Tom Jones when subsequent
pages say "Smith, page 2," and papers with whiteout over the previous author's
name.
Few of these clues will provide courtroom proof of plagiarism, of course,
but their presence should alert you to investigate the paper. Even
if you do not find the source of the paper, you may be able to use these
clues profitably in a discussion with the student in your office.
2. Know where the the sources of papers are. Before
you begin to search for the source or sources of a suspect paper, you should
know where to look. Here are the major sources of text in electronic
form:
-
Free and for-sale term paper sites. As mentioned earlier, there is
a list of many of these sites at Termpapers.com
at http://www.termpapers.com and at "Internet
Paper Mills" at http://www.coastal.edu/library/mills2.htm.
-
The free, visible Web. This category includes all the publicly mounted
Web pages, which are indexed by search engines.
-
The free, invisible Web. This cateory includes the contents of sites
that provide articles free to users, but that content may be accessible
only by going directly to the site. That is, the articles are not
indexed by search engines and therefore cannot be located by using a search
engine. Some magazines, newspapers, reference works, encyclopedias,
and subject-specific sites are in this category.
-
Paid databases over the Web. This category includes commercial databases
for consumers (such as Northern Light's Special Collection) and databases
that libraries subscribe to, containing scholarly journals, newspapers,
court cases and the like. Providers like Lexis-Nexis, UMI Proquest, Infotrac,
JSTOR and others are in this group. To find information from this category,
you must have access to the database (through password or an on-campus
computer) and search on the database directly.
-
CD-ROM resources. Encyclopedias and some databases are available
on CD-ROM.
3. Search for the paper online. If you suspect the paper may have
come from the Web, you might try these strategies to find it:
-
If you find nothing with these tools, try several of the large-database,
full-text search engines like Google,
Northern
Light, or Fast Search, and perform
an exact phrase search on a four-to-six-word phrase from a suspect part
of the paper (find a phrase that has two or three relatively unusual words
in it). Remember that no search engine covers more than about a third
of the visible Web, so you should try several engines before you give up.
-
Next, locate some appropriate databases on the invisible Web, depending
on the subject of the paper. You can find many of these databases
by consulting the "World Wide Web Research Tools"
page on this site. If indicated, visit some of the online encyclopedias
as well. Here, you will have to use keyword searches rather than
exact phrase searches, but using a string of appropriate keywords can be
very powerful.
-
Now go to your library's online database subscriptions and search on subject-appropriate
databases using keyword searches.
4. Use a plagiarism detector. You might also try using software.
See The Plagiarism Resource
Center for more information. If you do not find the paper this way,
you might want to turn to some commercial services that provide plagiarism
detection. Here are some of the services:
-
Plagiarism.com at http://www.plagiarism.com.
Educational materials and a software screening program that creates a test
of familiarity for a student to complete. The company says that no
student has been falsely accused. CD ROM program.
-
Plagiarism.org at http://www.plagiarism.org.
Online service that checks submitted student papers against a large database
and provides reports of results. Also monitors term paper mills.
-
Plagiarism Finder at http://www.m4-software.com.
Searches Internet sources.
-
Eve at http://www.canexus.com/eve/.
Inexpensive software agent that searches the Web to compare a suspect paper
with Internet content. Shows site and degree of match.
It is sometimes said that the best plagiarism detector is the student who
handed in the paper, because he or she already knows whether or not the
paper is genuine, or what part is fraudulent. Therefore, you can
sometimes enlist the student's help. You must be very careful about
accusing a student of cheating unless you have clear proof, because a false
accusation can be both cruel and reason for litigation. But if you
ask the right questions in the right way, you will often be successful.
Here are some example questions that may help reveal the truth:
-
"I was quite surprised by your paper, so I did some investigation into
it. Before I tell you what I found out, is there anything you want
to tell me about it?" With the appropriately serious demeanor and
tone, a well phrased question like this will often result in a confession.
If the student is innocent or just hardened and replies, "No," you can
always reveal some innocuous fact and go on.
-
"I'm curious to know why your writing style is so good in some parts of
the paper and so poor in others. And why have you not shown such
great writing on the in-class essays?"
-
"This long passage doesn't sound like your normal style. Is this
a quotation where you accidentally forgot the quotation marks?"
Also of Interest:
Ronald B. Standler's "Plagiarism
in Colleges in USA" provides a legal perspecive and other discussion
on the issue.
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About the author:
Robert Harris is a writer
and educator with more than 25 years of teaching experience at the college
and university level. RHarris at virtualsalt.com