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WHO RULES: THE ISRAEL LOBBY
OR UNCLE SAM?
The answer
at last! Uri Avnery, former Knesset member, assesses the Lobby's
power. "If the Israeli government wanted a law tomorrow
annulling the 10 Commandments, 95 U.S. Senators (at least) would
sign the bill forthwith." But, yes, in the end the dog wags
the tail.Fifty
years ago Allen Ginsberg's "Howl" blew the cobwebs
out of millions of young minds and drove a stake through the
heart of Eisenhower's America. Lenni Brenner remembers Ginsberg
in the East Village.Dr Mengele died in exile, in disguise. Dr Ishii
died rich and recognized, in his own Tokyo home. Christopher
Reed on Japanese WW2 medical tortures and how the U.S. covered
them up.CounterPunch
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Michael Krawitz, founder and curator
of the Cannabis Museum, has obtained via ebay a promotional booklet
attesting to the widespread medical use of cannabis in the U.S.
a century ago. The handsomely designed and printed 16-page booklet
was published by Parke, Davis & Co. to market its "Cannabis
Americana" to doctors and pharmacists. Just as drug companies
nowadays do when they have a potential "blockbuster"
emerging from the pipeline, Parke, Davis knocked the competition
("Cannabis Indica") and invoked science to peddle its
wares in 1910.
Under a first-page headline
defining Cannabis Americana as "Cannabis Sativa Grown in
America," the text gets right to the point:
"Much has been written
relative to the comparative activity of Cannabis Sativa grown
in different climates (Cannabis Indica, Mexicana, and Americana).
It has been generally assumed that the American-grown drug was
practically worthless therapeutically, and that Cannabis Sativa
grown in India must be used if one would obtain physiologically
active preparations.
"Furthermore, it has been
claimed that the best Indian drug is that grown especially for
medicinal purposes, the part used consisting of the flowering
tops of the unfertilized female plants, care being taken during
the growing of the drug to weed out the male plants. According
to our experience, this is an erroneous notion, as we have repeatedly
found that the Indian drug which contains large quantities of
seed is fully as active as the drug which consists of the flowering
tops only, provided the seed be removed before percolation."
This may reflect the crudeness of their testing system, which
the booklet will describe as state-of-the art.
"Several years ago we
began a systematic investigation of American grown Cannabis Sativa.
Samples from a number of localalities (sic) were obtained and
carefully investigated. From these samples fluid and solid extracts
were prepared according to the Pharma-copoeal method, and carefully
tested upon animals for physiological activity, and eventually
they were standardized by physiological methods. Repeated tests
have convinced us that Cannabis Americana properly grown and
cured is fully as active as the best Indian drug, while on the
other hand we have frequently found Indian Cannabis to be practically
inert.
"Before marketing preparations
of Cannabis Americana, however, we placed specimens of the fluid
and solid extracts in the hands of experienced clinicians for
practical test; and from these men, all of whom had used large
quantities of Cannabis Indica in practice, we have received reports
which affirm they have been unable to determine any therapeutic
difference between Cannabis Americana and Cannabis Indica. We
are, therefore of the opinion that Cannabis Americana will be
found equally as efficient as, and perhaps more uniformly reliable
than, Cannabis Indica obtained from abroad, since it is evident
that with a source of supply at our very doors proper precautions
can be taken to obtain crude drug of the best quality."
"Nomenclature The proper
botanical name of the drug under consideration is Cannabis Sativa.
The Indian plant was formerly supposed to be a distinct species
per se, but botanists now consider the two plants to be identical.
The old name of Cannabis Indica, however, has been retained in
medicine. Cannabis Indica simply means Cannabis Sativa grown
in the Indies, and Cannabis Americana means Cannabis Sativa grown
in America ...
"Physiological Action
The physiological action of Cannabis Americana is precisely the
same as that of Cannabis Indica. The effects of this drug are
said to be due chiefly to its action upon the central nervous
system ...
"Therapeutic Indications
Cannabis Americana is employed for the same medicinal purposes
as Cannabis Indica, which is frequently used as a hypnotic in
cases of sleeplessness, in nervous exhaustion, and as a sedative
in patients suffering from pain. Its greatest use has perhaps
been in the treatment of various nervous and mental diseases,
although it is found as an ingredient in many cough mixtures.
In general, Cannabis Americana can be used when a mild hypnotic
or sedative is indicated, as it is said not to disturb digestion,
and it produces no subsequent nausea and depression. It is of
use in cases of migraine, particularly when opium is contraindicated.
It is recommended in paralysis agitans to quiet the tremors,
in spasm of the bladder, and in sexual impotence not the result
of organic disease, especially in combinations with nux vomica
and ergot.
"Dosage Extractum Cannabis
Americae, 0.01 gramme (1-5 grain), Fluidextractum Cannabis Americanae,
0.05 Cc (1 minim). The dosage of Cannabis Americana is the same
as that of Cannabis Indica, as from our experiments we find there
is no therapeutic difference in the physiological action of the
two drugs.
"Advantages Cannabis Sativa,
when grown in the United States (Cannabis Americana) under careful
precautions, is found to be fully as active as the best imported
Indian-grown Cannabis Sativa, as shown by laboratory and clinical
tests. The advantages of using carefully prepared solid and fluid
extracts of the home-grown drug are apparent when it is considered
that every step of the process, from the planting of the drug
to the final marketing of the finished product, is under the
supervision of experts. The imported drug varies extremely in
activity and much of it is practically inert or flagrantly adulterated.
"Packages Extractum Cannabis
Americanae is put up in jars containing one ounce; Fluidextractum
Cannabis Americanae is put up in bottles of one-quarter pint
and one pint, respectively."
There follows a centerfold
-graceful drawings of the male and female plants, reproduced
by a four-color process on one page, and a black and white photo
of Parke, Davis's laboratory of medical research, a four-story
brick building on the bank of the Detroit River. Built in 1902,
it was the first lab dedicated to drug-company research and reflects
Parke, Davis's stature as industry leader.
The second half of the booklet
reprints an article entitled "A Pharmacological Study of
Cannabis Americana (Cannabis Sativa)" by Parke, Davis researchers
E.M. Houghton and H.C. Hamilton, which ran in the American Journal
of Pharmacy January, 1908. It is, shall we say, lacking in rigor.
Houghton's specialty was testing drugs on animals. His method:
"consists essentially
in the careful observation of the physiological effects produced
upon dogs from the internal administration of the preparation
of the drug under test. It is necessary in selecting the test
animals to pick out those that are easily susceptible to the
action of cannabis, since dogs as well as human beings vary considerably
in their reaction to the drug...
"In preparing the test,
the standard dose (in the form of solid extract for convenience)
is administered internally in a small capsule. The dog's tongue
is drawn forward between the teeth with the left hand, and the
capsule placed on the back part of the tongue with the right
hand. The tongue is then quickly released, and the capsule is
swallowed with ease. In order that the drug may be rapidly absorbed,
food should be withheld 24 hours before the test and an efficient
cathartic given if needed." In other words, the poor dog
would be given a large dose of hash and then starved.
"Within a comparatively
short time the dog begins to show the characteristic action of
the drug. There are three typical effects to be noticed from
active extracts on susceptible animals: first a stage of excitability,
then a stage of incoordination, followed by a period of drowsiness.
The first of these is so dependent on the characteristics of
the dog used that it is of little value for judging the activity
of the drug, while with only a few exceptions the second, or
the stage of incoordination, invariably follows in one to two
hours: the dog loses control of its legs and of the muscles supporting
its head, so that when nothing occurs to attract its attention
its head will droop, its body sway, and when severely affected,
the animal will stagger and fall, the intoxication being peculiarly
suggestive and striking.
"Experience is necessary
on the part of the observer to determine just when the physiological
effects of the drug begin to manifest themselves, since there
is always, as in the case of many chemical tests, a personal
factor to be guarded against. When an active extract is given
to a susceptible animal, in the smallest dose that will produce
any perceptible effect, one must watch closely for the slightest
trace of incoordination, lack of attention, or drowsiness. It
is particularly necessary for the animals to be confined in a
room where nothing will excite them, since when their attention
is drawn to anything of interest the typical effects of the drug
may disappear."
"The influence of the
test dose of the unknown drug is carefully compared with that
of the same dose of the standard preparation administered to
another test dog at the same time and under the same conditions.
"Finally, when the animals
become drowsy, the observations are recorded and the animals
are returned to their quarters.
"The second day following,
the observations upon the two dogs are reversed, i.e. the animal
receiving the test dose of the unknown receives a test dose of
the known, and vice versa, and a second observation is made.
If one desires to make a very accurate quantitative determination,
it is advisable to use, not two dogs, but four or five, and to
study the effects of the test dose of the unknown specimen in
comparison with the test dose of the known, making several observations
on alternate days. If the unknown is below standard activity,
the amount should be increased until the effect produced is the
same as for the test dose of the standard. If the unknown is
above strength, the test dose is diminished accordingly. From
the dose of the unknown selected as producing the same action
as the test dose of the standard, the amount of dilution or concentration
necessary is determined. The degree of accuracy with which the
test is carried out will depend largely upon the experience of
the observer and the care he exercises.
"Another point to be noted
in the use of dogs for standardizing Cannabis is that, although
they never appear to lose their susceptibility, the same dog
cannot be used indefinitely for accurate testing. After a time
they become so accustomed to the effects of the drug that they
refuse to stand on their feet, and so do not show the typical
incoordination which is its most characteristic and constant
action." Did the test animals learn the drill, get bored,
or go on strike?
"Previous to the adoption
of the physiological test over 12 years ago, we were often annoyed
by complaints of physicians that certain lots of drugs were inert;
in fact some hospitals, before accepting their supplies of hemp
preparations, asked for samples in order to make rough tests
upon their patients before ordering." Or did they just want
some freebies?
"Many tons of the various
preparations of Cannabis Indica have been tested and supplied
for medicinal purposes."
"Since the adoption of
the new test we have not had a well authenticated report of inactivity,
although many tons of the various preparations of Cannabis Indica
have been tested and supplied for medicinal purposes.
"A dog weighing 25 pounds
received an injection of two ounces of an active U.S.P. fluid
extract in the jugular vein with the expectation that it would
certainly be sufficient to produce death...
"At the beginning of our
observations careful search of the literature on the subject
was made to determine the toxicity of the hemp. Not a single
case of fatal poisoning have we been able to find reported, although
often alarming symptoms may occur. A dog weighing 25 pounds received
an injection of two ounces of an active U.S.P. fluid extract
in the jugular vein with the expectation that it would certainly
be sufficient to produce death. To our surprise, the animal,
after being unconscious for about a day and a half, recovered
completely. This dog received not alone the active constituents
of the drug but also the amount of alcohol contained in the fluid
extract. Another dog received about 7 grammes of Solid Extract
Cannabis with the same result. We have never been able to give
an animal a sufficient quantity of a U.S. P. or other preparation
of the Cannabis (Indica or Americana) to produce death."
Solid Extract Cannabis is also
known as hashish. Seven grammes = 1/4 oz.
"There is some variation
in the amount of extractive obtained, as would be expected from
the varying amount of stems, seeds, etc., in the different samples.
Likewise there is a certain amount of variation in the physiological
action, but in every case the administration of 0.01 gramme of
the extract per kilo body weight has elicited the characteristic
symptoms in properly selected animals. "The repeated tests
we have made convince us that Cannabis Americana properly grown
and cured is fully as active as the best Indian drug. "Furthermore,
we have placed out quantities of fluid extract and solid extract
in the hands of experienced clinicians, and from eight of these
men, who are all large users of the drug, we have received reports
which state that they are unable to determine any therapeutic
difference between the Cannabis Americana and the Cannabis Indica.
"Conclusions 1. The method
outlined in the paper for determining the physiological activity
of Cannabis Sativa by internal administration to especially selected
dogs, has been found reliable when the standard dose of extract,
0.01 gramme per kilo body weight is tested on animals, the effects
being noted by an experienced observer in comparison with the
effects of the same quantity of a standard preparation.
"2. Cannabis Sativa, when
grown in various localities of the United States and Mexico,
is found to be fully as active as the best imported Indian-grown
Cannabis Sativa, as shown by laboratory and clinical tests."
Evidently Parke, Davis owned
land in Mexico or contracted with farmers there to produce Cannabis
Americana.
Michael Krawitz, who lives
in Virginia, competes on ebay for cannabis-related artifacts
with Paul Stanford (who runs clinics in several Western states
for the Hemp and Cannabis Foundation), Ethan Russo, MD, the well-known
neurologist, and ex-pat researcher David Watson (co-founder of
Hortipharm, whose genetic library jump-started GW pharmaceuticals),
among others. Krawitz is the son of an auctioneer, so he's highly
knowledgeable about antiques. A disability check from the Air
Force (injured his back in a helicopter crash) helps sustain
his activism, which in this case is truly collectivist. Krawitz
has boldly declared his collection to be "The Cannabis Museum."
He hopes to have 100,000 artifacts online at www.cannabismuseum.org
by 2008. He also brings artifacts to display at various venues
-conferences, trade shows, etc. His explanations are informative
and insightful. Krawitz gave a talk at the NORML conference in
San Francisco last month at which he said, in reference to a
photo of Louis Armstrong: "Louis Armstrong was very outspoken
about smoking marijuana. Louis Armstrong was the first activist."
Krawitz asked Tod Mikuriya,
MD, to autograph a copy of "Marijuana Medical Papers,"
the anthology of pre-prohibition literature Mikuriya published
in 1973. It includes the result of Mikuriya's inquiry into Cannabis
Americana -a letter from L.M. Wheeler, PhD, Director, Department
of Product Development, dated June 19, 1968:
"Dear Dr. Miuriya,
Your letter of May 21 inquiring
further into the role that Parke-Davis played in the early teens
and twenties with respect to the stabilization of cannabis extracts
is at hand. Fragmentary information has come to our attention
by virture of a recent visit to Detroit from his home in Florida
of one of the individuals active on our staff at that time.
"This individual informs
us that Parke, Davis & Company and Eli Lilly Company did
cooperate in the development of a standard cannabis preparation
in the form of a fluid extract, a tincture, a solid extract,
and a powdered extract. We originally used Cannabis Indicate
but later standardized on a strain of Cannabis Americana which
we grew at our biological farm, Parkedale, near Rochester, Michigan.
"Our retired employee
gave us the following description, as best he could reconstruct
it from memory, of the standardization procedure used in experimental
animals at that time. The test method is as follows:
1. Select medium-sized short-haired
dogs weighing less than 15 kilos, of fair degree of intelligence,
preferably fox terriers. Do not feed for 12 hours prior to the
test.
2. Determine susceptibility
of the dogs by administration of minimum dose of standard preperation.
The standard preparation is obtained from the food & Drug
Control Laboratory at Washington.
3. The dose of sample to be
tested is determined by multiplication of the weight of the dog
by the standard dose per unit weight.
4. Dose is administered in
capsule.
5. The results of administration
are apparent in about one hour. Muscular incoordination and drowsiness
indicate activity.
6. The activity of the sample
is dependent upon the degree of reaction and susceptibility of
the dog. Do not use the dog oftener than once every three days.
7. The standard dose for various
preparations is as follows:
Fluid extract 0.1 cc. per kilogram
Tincture 1.0 cc. per kilogram Solid extract 4.0 mg per kilogram
Powdered extract 40 mg per kilgram
8. Retest the sample following
adjustment on the basis of the first assay.
"Our interest in standardizing
cannabis extracts was discontinued in 1938 when the "New"
Drug Regulations called for the proof of safety of agents distributed
for drug purposes. With this intermediate clarification of the
description of drug, cannabis extracts fell into disuse by the
medical profession since they provided no medical need [sic]
that was not available in a more carefully standardized form
from the more advanced work on natural alkaloids.
"Since the current New
Drug Regulations require both safety and efficacy to be clearly
demonstrated in the hands of qualified investigators, it seems
even more remote that cannabis might find a useful role in human
medicine."
Mikuriya says, "Safety
and efficacy have been clearly demonstrated. The plant hasn't
changed and neither has human physiology. Cannabis should be
grandfathered into the national formulary, just as aspirin was
after the new regulations were established in 1938."
Fred Gardner is the editor of O'Shaughnessy's
Journal of the California Cannabis Research Medical Group. He
can be reached at: fred@plebesite.com
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