School belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among African American male high school students: implications for school counselors.
While academic self-efficacy is widely considered an individual cognitive variable, it may be influenced by a sense of belonging and connection to others in the school community. Using a correlation and multiple regression design, the study in this article examined the relationship between perceptions of school belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among 40 African American male high school students. Results indicated that feeling encouraged to participate and educational aspirations were significant, positive predictors of academic self-efficacy. Other components of perceptions of school belonging were not significant in predicting academic self-efficacy. Recommendations for future research and practical suggestions for school counselors are discussed.**********
A considerable amount of research in the past 20 years has focused on the "achievement gap" that exists between affluent and White students and their less affluent and minority counterparts, with particular attention being given to the achievement gap between African American students and White students. Although African American students made some initial strides in narrowing the gap, research indicates that the gap has actually widened in the past 10 years, with African American students still accounting for 14.7% of all dropouts--nearly twice the rate of White students (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Research shows that lower-income and minority students often attend underfunded and dilapidated schools with limited course offerings, are served by underqualified and inexperienced teachers, and are less likely to have access to rigorous courses (Education Trust, 2007). These deficits of access and resources, described as the opportunity gap, are suggested to be major contributors to the disparity in achievement (Holzman, 2006).
School performance of African American males in particular has been an area of concern in both educational and public arenas (Education Trust, 2003; Holzman, 2006). Recent studies and national media have highlighted evidence that shows great disparity in school outcomes between African American males and other student populations. National statistics continue to show significant differences in high school graduation rates, college attendance, and completion rates between African American male and White students, none of which favor African American males (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Moreover, African American males are still more likely to be in the lowest academic track, to be disciplined more often, and to be negatively stereotyped by teachers than White students (Holzman). Perhaps the most telling statistic is that the graduation rate for African American male students was just 45% in 2004, compared to 70% for White males (U.S. Department of Education).
In addition to disparities in achievement levels between African American male students and White male students, disaggregated data reveal African American males also are achieving at much lower levels than African American females (Holzman, 2006). This within-racial group gender gap is the widest gender gap of any student demographic group. The gender gap is evident in a number of achievement variables including the college graduation rate. Of all African American males enrolled in college, only 34.2% graduated as compared to 44.7% of African American females (Education Trust, 2007). In fact, the college graduation rate of African American males is the lowest of any group. The consequences of failing to properly educate African American males are grave. Not only are African American males less likely to attend and complete college, but they are more likely to be underemployed or unemployed, and they are incarcerated more than any other gender-race group.
Multiple hypotheses have been suggested to explain the lower performance of African American students generally and African American male students specifically compared to their White counterparts. Many of these hypotheses have suggested intrapersonal explanations. For example, Fordham and Ogbu (1986) posited that some African American students have developed an "oppositional" culture to academic achievement due to past discriminatory practices and limited educational opportunities. Furthermore, African American students may be vulnerable to "stereotype threat," which is characterized as a social-psychological threat occurring when individuals anticipate the possibility of fulfilling a negative stereotype (Steele, 1997). The negative implications of stereotype threat include anxiety, low test scores, and low expectancies for academic success (Steele).
In addition, several psychosocial, cultural, and ecological explanations have been offered to account for unique struggles of African American male students from all socioeconomic backgrounds (Booker, 2004; Finn, 1989; Lee, 1992). Cultural misunderstandings, low expectations by school staff, disparity in resources, and parenting styles in conflict with the demands and expectations of traditional schools all have been cited as contributing factors (Education Trust, 2007; Garibaldi, 1992; Kuykendall, 1991). Moreover, the combination of race and gender may constitute a "double jeopardy" of sorts, further imposing barriers to the academic success of many African American males. Unless these barriers are identified and addressed, schools that serve these students may be inadvertently perpetuating this cycle of underserving students with the greatest need, with the ultimate result being far too many African American males who fulfill these collective low expectations by becoming nonlearners and, in some cases, dropouts.
Although recent school reform initiatives such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) have targeted the underachievement of African American males and other lower-performing students, there is little evidence that such interventions have resulted in increased achievement of high school students identified as "at risk" by the legislation (Education Trust, 2003; U.S. Department of Education, 2001). By seeking to close the achievement gap by focusing solely on high-stakes assessments, NCLB appears to neglect the numerous personal and social variables that impact student learning. For instance, interventions targeting the academic achievement of African American males often focus on scholastic or cognitive variables related to educational success, even though previous models for understanding African American males' academic struggles indicate the importance of psychological orientation to education in general, and the school environment specifically (Taylor, 1991; Taylor, 1994).
Therefore, interventions focusing on such psychological and environmental factors in addition to the cognitive or academic factors may play a critical role in promoting academic success among African American male students. Three constructs that have been documented in the literature to be positively correlated with traditional indicators of academic achievement from all ethnic groups, and therefore may hold great promise for promoting academic success among African American males, are psychological sense of school belonging, academic self-efficacy, and educational aspirations (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Rojewski & Kim, 2003).
PSYCHOLOGICAL SENSE OF SCHOOL BELONGING
Psychological sense of school belonging is defined as the extent to which students perceive themselves to be welcomed, valued, and respected members of the school community (Goodenow, 1992). Research indicates that a psychological sense of school belonging can have a particularly strong influence on the educational adjustment of adolescent students (Finn, 1989; Goodenow). A sense of support from encouraging adult mentors (teacher, counselor, coaches) in the school has been found to have beneficial effects on school attendance, college attendance, and educational aspirations of minority youth (Flaxman, 1992). Ironically, as children reach adolescence, such school support often declines (Eccles & Midgley, 1989). Therefore, it appears that as students need a greater sense of belonging to and support from their school community in order to be successful, that very support becomes less available.
A strong sense of school belonging has often been associated with higher grades, academic motivation, and high school completion rates (Finn, 1989; Goodenow, 1992; Osterman, 2000). For example, Anderman (2002) found that a sense of school belonging was positively related to grade point average (GPA) and self-concept and negatively related to school problems and absenteeism in a diverse sample of adolescents. Additionally, an increased sense of belonging to the school community by way of encouragement, and positive interactions with teachers, administrators, and peers, has been linked to overall school satisfaction and achievement (Taylor, 1991). Moreover, emotional factors such as how much students enjoy and feel connected to school are key indicators of their psychological sense of school belonging (Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994).
A sense of belonging or connectedness is important for all students, but it may be particularly important for African American males. Cultural-ecological frameworks from Ogbu (1988) and Connell et al. (1994) suggest that student achievement is a result of the dynamic interactions that occur between students and their social contexts. Thus, African American male students' academic success is likely influenced by their perceptions of themselves within the school context. In other words, when stu dents do not perceive themselves to be a contributing part of the school community, they are at greater risk of dropping out. This idea fits with Finn's (1989) identification-participation model, which asserts that students must identify with the school and believe themselves to be a welcomed and respected member of the school community, or else they begin the gradual process of disengagement, which may lead to school dropout. It may come as no surprise, then, that African American students tend to score lower than other students in measures of belonging, with African American males perceiving less school belonging than all other groups (Anderman, 2002; Booker, 2004; Goodenow, 1992; Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996).
ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY
For many years, educational researchers pointed to low self-esteem as an explanation for academic failure (Coleman et al., 1966). However, dropout intervention programs attempting to address academic failure by improving student self-esteem have not proven to be effective (Finn & Rock, 1997; Jonson-Reid, Davis, Saunders, Williams, & Williams, 2005), and several studies noted weak or nonsignificant correlations between self-esteem and school achievement among minority youth (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Joseph, 1992). Recently, researchers have begun focusing on self-efficacy rather than self-esteem (Bandura, 1993; Pajares & Miller, 1994). Academic self-efficacy refers to an individual's confidence in his or her ability to succeed in academic tasks and pursuits (Bandura). Academic self-efficacy has been the focus of a vast amount of research due to its influence on various aspects of student academic functioning.
Researchers have shown that academic self-efficacy is predictive of students' ability to succeed and that students with higher academic self-efficacy work harder (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001), are more persistent (Pajares, 1996), and develop better goal-setting and time-monitoring strategies than other students (Zimmerman, 2000). Choi (2005) found that high levels of academic self-efficacy are positively related to academic performance, and others have documented the importance of perceived confidence in initiating and sustaining motivation and achievement-oriented behavior (Bandura, 1993; Pajares & Miller, 1994).
EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS
Educational aspirations, which refers to early impressions of one's own academic abilities and the highest level of education an individual expects to attain (Furlong & Cartmel, 1995), also has been linked to academic achievement (Rojewski & Yang, 1997). Educational aspirations have been well documented in the career development literature, and are seen as "the first step in the pipeline" of career attendance (Berkner & Chavez, 1997). Educational aspirations are developed early in a student's academic career, and are generally theorized to affect academic achievement by enhancing the possibility of participating in and/or pursuing educational opportunities (Arbona, 2000). That is, students who have high academic aspirations are more likely to take advantage of educational opportunities that may lead to academic success. Likewise, students with low academic aspirations are less likely to take advantage of these opportunities, thus limiting their future educational opportunities (Arbona). In this way, students' educational aspirations can influence what they learn in school, how they prepare for their postsecondary lives, and their ultimate academic and career attainment (Walberg, 1989).
Research indicates that African American males differ very little from White males in their educational aspirations, although African American males experience lower educational attainment than any other gender-race group (Bateman & Kennedy, 1997). This incongruence between African American males' educational aspirations and their ultimate educational attainment may be related to what Mickelson (1990) referred to as the dichotomy between abstract and concrete views of education. In other words, students' aspirations may represent their hopes, but their eventual attainment may be affected by future concrete realities such as lack of resources, prejudice, and other social barriers.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL BELONGING, EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS, AND ACADEMIC SELF-EFFICACY
A number of empirical studies have linked positive student perceptions of teacher-student relationships and feelings of school belonging to positive achievement outcomes (Goodenow, 1993a; Osterman, 2000; Roeser et al., 1996). For instance, perceptions of school belonging have been connected with academic motivation (Taylor, 1999), task goal orientation (Roeser et al.), and academic self-efficacy. Among a diverse sample of eighth-grade students, researchers found that perceived positive relationships with students' peers and the adults in the building predicted higher feelings of belonging. Additionally, feelings of belonging and academic self-efficacy were both associated with higher final-semester grades (Roeser et al.). Despite previous research linking perceptions of school belonging with academic achievement, one study investigating this association among 61 African American adolescents found that the level of perceptions of school belonging did not account for a significant portion of variance in academic achievement (Booker, 2004). While several studies seem to indicate that perceptions of school belonging and academic self-efficacy are related to each other and to academic achievement, little is known about the exact nature of that relationship, and no study has attempted to look specifically at those constructs exclusively with African American males.
Research also has identified a positive correlation between academic self-efficacy and educational aspirations among a diverse group of ninth-grade students (Johnson, 2000). However, regression analyses computed to test whether academic self-efficacy predicted educational aspirations were not statistically significant. Thus, although it seems that educational aspirations and academic self-efficacy are clearly related, the nature of that relationship is not yet completely understood. It may be, then, that the more abstract concept of educational aspirations needs to be in place first, before students can develop a more concrete and contextual sense of academic self-efficacy.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
In light of previous findings, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceptions of school belonging, academic self-efficacy, and educational aspirations among a sample of African American male high school students. Two hypotheses guided this study. The first hypothesis was that perceptions of school belonging would be positively related to academic self-efficacy among a sample of African American male 9th and 10th graders. The second hypothesis was that measures of perceptions of school belonging and indicators of educational aspirations would positively predict academic self-efficacy scores.
METHOD
Participants
This study was conducted in a small, predominately (95.62%) African American high school in a large Southeastern city. The school, which was in its second year of operation at the time of the research study, was designed to maintain a smaller student body relative to other schools in its district, and has as one of its goals to foster a sense of community within the school. Approximately 80% of the student body received free or reduced lunch. Of the 70 African American males enrolled in the 9th and 10th grades, 40 completed the research packet, resulting in a 62% response rate. The other male students either did not return parental consent forms in time for the study or chose not to participate. The mean age of the participants was 15.6 with ages ranging from 14 to 16 years. Eleven (27.5%) students were in the 9th grade, and 29 (72.5%) were in the 10th grade.
Instruments
Demographic questionnaire. The demographic questionnaire consisted of a seven-item self-report instrument designed to obtain demographic information including grade level, race, sex, age, year in school, and other information such as family income, mother's educational level, and educational aspiration. Educational aspiration was measured by the question "What is the highest degree you expect to earn?" Response categories ranged from (1) high school to (5) doctoral degree; participants also were given a category option of other and encouraged to write in any alternative options.
Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (PSSM). The PSSM (Goodenow, 1993b) is an 18-item inventory that measures the subjective sense of belonging in school. This scale was developed for use specifically with early- and mid-adolescent students. Unlike measures of school climate, items on the PSSM are phrased in terms of a subjective, individual perspective, rather than questions that ask more objectively about the supportiveness of the school. In an attempt to reduce the likelihood of a "response set" on the part of students, approximately one third of the items are negatively worded. Respondents rate their agreement on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true to 5 = completely true). Negatively worded items are reverse scored and all item values are averaged for a scale score for each student. The PSSM scale has been used with African American, White, and Latino adolescent samples with an internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) estimate of .80 (Goodenow, 1992). For the present study, the total scale yielded a Cronbach's alpha of .81.
Subscale development: For purposes of this study, researchers developed specific subscales within the PSSM that examined three separate dimensions of belonging. These subscales were adapted from findings from previous research identifying important dimensions of the larger construct of school belonging (Connell et al., 1994; Goodenow, 1992; Taylor, 1991). The subscales were Perceived Likeness and Inclusion (PLI), Feeling Encouraged to Participate (FEP), and General Feelings of Belonging (GFB). The PLI subscale (e.g., "People at this school are friendly to me") measures the extent to which students perceive that they are liked and accepted by school staff and peers. "Likeness" refers to perceiving a positive emotional response from others. The FEP subscale (e.g., "People here notice when I'm good at something") measures the extent to which students perceive recognition of their strengths and perceive affirmative, specific, personal requests for participation. The GFB subscale (e.g., "I feel like a real part of this school") is the defining characteristic of perceptions of school belonging and relates to how students perceive their immediate contexts as welcoming, and the extent that they perceive themselves as members of the school community.
Content validity for the subscales was achieved by distributing the scales to experts and asking them to blindly assign each question on the PSSM to one of the subscales. Interrater reliability was 100%, indicating complete agreement regarding the subscale to which each of the questions pertained. A copy of the PSSM subscale items is available upon request. The present study found Cronbach's alphas of .76 for the GFB subscale, .66 for the FEP subscale, and .63 for the PLI subscale.
Academic Serf-Efficacy Scale. The Academic Self-Efficacy Scale used in this study was an adaptation of Bachman's (1970) School Ability Self-Concept Index that has previously been used by Jonson-Reid et al. (2005). Academic self-efficacy was measured with eight items, three of which were "How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with those in your grade at school?"; "How intelligent do you think you are compared to others your age?"; and "How capable do you think you are of getting good grades?" Items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ~ far below average to 5 = very much above average. The survey was previously used in a study with an African American adolescent sample with a reported internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) estimate of .89 (Jonson-Reid et al.). For the present study, a Cronbach's alpha of .74 was obtained.
Procedure
The first step in conducting the study was an announcement made by the researcher at the school's first open house. The study was described to students and their parents, informed-consent information was shared, and prospective participants and their parents were asked if they were interested in participation. For a 3-week period, parent consent forms were collected. Consenting students were then assembled in an auditorium for 45-minute blocks, over a 2-day period. The researcher distributed survey packets, which included a cover letter, the demographic questionnaire, and the two survey instruments. Students then were given a standardized set of instructions. Students were instructed to read each item carefully and advised to answer each item at their own pace. The researcher read each item aloud to the group. After both surveys were completed, the researcher thanked the students for their participation and collected the forms. Materials were coded as they were received and all responses were kept confidential. Data were analyzed using SPSS 14.0.
RESULTS
Frequencies were calculated for the demographic variables of educational aspirations, maternal educational level, and parental income. Regarding educational aspirations, 10% of the students expected to earn at most a high school diploma, 7.5% of the students expected to earn a bachelor's degree, 60% of the students expected to earn a master's degree, and 22.5% of the students expected to earn a doctoral degree. Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients were computed for all scales and subscales (Table 1). On average, students scored around the 3.0 scale midpoint on the PSSM scale (M= 3.10, SD = .39) and on all the subscales: FEP (M = 3.02, SD = .49), PLI (M = 3.31, SD = .42), and GFB (M = 2.99, SD = .56). Generally, these students held a moderate degree of perception of school belonging. With regard to the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, on average, students scored well above the 3.0 midpoint scale (M = 3.99, SD = .49), indicating a relatively high perception of academic self-efficacy.
Intercorrelations among the PSSM scale, the Perceived Likeness and Inclusion subscale, the Feeling Encouraged to Participate subscale, the General Feelings of Belonging subscale, educational aspirations, and the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale are presented in Table 2. Pearson correlations were calculated among all variables except for those correlations between variables with educational aspirations, where Spearman's rho was used instead. A nominal alpha level was set at .05. The PSSM scale, the GFB subscale, and the PLI subscale were not significantly correlated with Academic Self-Efficacy scores. However, analyses revealed a statistically significant relationship between Academic Self-Efficacy scores and FEP scores (r [38] = .42, p < .001), and also between Academic Self-Efficacy scores and educational aspirations (r [38] = .39, p < .05). Using Cohen's (1988, 1992) rule of thumb, both of these correlations are moderate in magnitude.
A multiple regression model was estimated using educational aspirations, PLI scores, FEP scores, and GFB scores to predict Academic Self-Efficacy scores. All regression assumptions were met. Results from the model can be seen in Table 3. The regression equation was significant (F[4, 35] = 3.38, p < .05) with an [R.sup.2] of .28. The adjusted R-square was .196. According to Cohen (1992), the R-square obtained by this model can be considered large, and the adjusted R-square can be considered medium in magnitude, thus indicating that the predictors examined explained a substantial portion of the variance in academic self-efficacy. Of the four predictors, only the FEP subscale (ß = .39, p < .05) and educational aspirations (ß = .33, p < .05) significantly predicted academic self-efficacy. Both variables had positive relationships with Academic Self-Efficacy scores.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between perceptions of school belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among a sample of African American male high school students. The primary hypothesis of the study, that a measure of overall perceptions of school belonging would be positively related to academic self-efficacy in the sample studied, was not supported. Regarding the second part of the first hypothesis, one of the three subscales of the perceptions of school belonging measure, Feeling Encouraged to Participate, did positively predict Academic Self-Efficacy scores with statistical significance. These results indicate that the most salient aspect of perceptions of school belonging for this study's participants seemed to be whether they felt they were the recipients of direct, targeted invitations to participate in school programming, either academic or extracurricular.
Although students' perceptions of being liked by others and their general impression of membership may be valued, results from this study suggest that those feelings do not positively influence participants' academic self-efficacy. Students may require more than casual or passing acknowledgments from members of the school community or the perception that they are well liked in order to believe that they can succeed in school.
The finding that FEP is more predictive of academic self-efficacy than other aspects of perceptions of school belonging is consistent with research suggesting that academic self-efficacy plays a greater role in academic achievement than either self-concept or self-esteem (Jonson-Keid et al., 2005). Specific, direct, and authentic interactions with members of the school community who believe that they can perform at a high level appear to be more important to African American males than how much they perceive that they are liked by others. It may be that the simple act of inviting students to play a more active part in the school community--and the students' perception that they are welcomed and appreciated--may play a crucial role in helping underserved populations believe that they can succeed in a school environment. However, more research is needed to understand the specific nature of this relationship.
Further, the finding that only one particular feature of perceptions of school belonging, FEP, is predictive of academic self-efficacy in this sample may help explain past research findings. For instance, in a mixed-methods study in which the relationship between perceptions of school belonging and academic achievement among African American adolescents was examined, Booker (2004) concluded that there was not a statistically significant relationship between the two variables. However, qualitative data from her study indicated that the majority of students felt that interactions with school staff that motivated them and encouraged them to stay after school for extra assistance so that they wouldn't fail enhanced their connection to the school. Similarly, another study examining the association of perceptions of school belonging with several measures of motivation and achievement among a diverse sample of adolescents found significant relationships between general feelings of belonging and expectancies of school success among all ethnic and gender groups, with the exception of African American males (Goodenow, 1992). These findings suggest that being targeted and directly invited to participate may be especially meaningful to African American males, and that without that invitation, these students may feel liked without feeling academically competent.
Although it is not clear why this aspect of school belonging appears to play such an important role for African American males, there are some potential explanations. First, because African American males are keenly aware of the negative perceptions based on their race and gender (Boyd-Franklin, 1989), it may be that specific gestures of invitation are valued more by them. Without such invitations, these students may fall back on their "default" beliefs that their teachers and other adults believe the negative stereotypes about them. This dynamic may be related to stereotype threat, as African American students may be waiting for an invitation to participate more fully but are reluctant to seek out opportunities, fearing that teachers perceive them negatively. In turn, this behavior may perpetuate some teachers' views that African American males are not interested in getting involved in educational activities.
Additionally, although the present study did not include females, it may be that general feelings of belonging may have greater importance for females, who tend to be more interpersonally oriented, whereas males may be more interested in having members of the school community acknowledge what they can do or accomplish. This idea is consistent with previous research citing the positive association between task-goal orientation and academic self-efficacy (Roeser et al., 1996).
The second hypothesis that educational aspirations would significantly predict Academic Self-Efficacy scores was supported and is consistent with previous research positively linking educational aspirations with academic achievement (Johnson, 2000). Our results suggest that the level of education our sample of African American students hoped to attain predicts their sense of academic competence. This suggests that African American males may benefit from participation in activities that help to enhance their academic aspirations, by way of academic and career development. This suggestion appears consistent with research indicating that school factors such as educating parents and encouraging students to participate in longstanding academic and career guidance programs can help to shape realistic educational aspirations of African American males (Bateman & Kennedy, 1997).
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Although the findings of this study provided implications that may be useful to school counselors in their interaction with male African American students, specific limitations should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the school from which the sample population was obtained is exclusively African American and was composed of only first- and second-year high school students at the time of sample selection. Also, one of the goals of the school's administration was fostering a sense of school belonging, and in fact, the students in the sample did report slightly higher than average overall belonging scores on the PSSM. Any of these factors may affect the students' sense of belonging and/or their self-efficacy scores. Further research within different school settings, particularly larger high schools with more diverse student populations, may provide more information about the generalizability of these results.
A second set of limitations involves the lack of specific academic outcome data. Due to the research policies in the local school district, researchers were not given access to participants' scores on academic achievement measures including grades, attendance records, or graduation rates, and student self-reports of grades were not utilized because data collection took place at the beginning of the year, before students had received any grades. If possible, obtaining grades via the school system or collecting student self-reported grades at the end of the school year may be a good strategy for adding a more objective outcome measure. It should be noted, however, that although this study did not identify a direct link between either of the constructs and academic achievement outcome data, academic self-efficacy has been linked with academic success in previous studies (Choi, 2005) and thus can be referred to as a proximal outcome data source (Brown & Trusty, 2005). Furthermore, school counselors and other educators could easily use their own school records to determine the relationship within their schools.
It is also worth noting that relationships between components of perceptions of school belonging and academic self-efficacy can be reciprocal. As students feel themselves to be valued members of the school environment, they may have more confidence in their ability to succeed in academics. Likewise, as students feel more confident and successful, they are more accepted and, subsequently, feel more of a connection to the school. Similarly, there also can be a reciprocal relationship between perceptions of school belonging, academic self-efficacy, and educational aspirations. Advanced modeling techniques such as structural equation modeling may be necessary to test these relationships. Another suggestion for new research would be to conduct a longitudinal study in which a group of African American males are followed over several years to determine what impact perceptions of school belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy had on academic achievement, by way of GPA and graduation rate. Such a design also might help determine if levels of perceptions of school belonging and academic self-efficacy change as students mature.
Implications for School Counselors
Adolescents' emotional and behavioral attitudes about their competence and attitudes toward the school environment have important implications for their educational adjustment and academic achievement. Consequently, professional school counselors must view building a sense of community within their school as an academic intervention, and they must work to create the kind of learning environments that support the academic, career, and social success of all students (American School Counselor Association, 2005). Furthermore, the finding that being invited to participate and contribute was more important to students' academic self-efficacy than was their perception that they were liked provides support for the new vision of school counseling, in which school counselors are expected to be "more than 'Certified Nice People'" (Paisley, as quoted in Raudonis, 2005, p. 4). Instead, professional school counselors should have what Paisley and Hayes (2003) called "a fundamental belief in the capacity of all students to achieve at high levels" (p. 199) and be willing to demonstrate that belief by actively encouraging students to become involved in their schools.
In addition to having fundamental beliefs in student achievement, school counselors could invite individual or groups of African American males for a dialogue about their overall schooling experiences. Day-Vines and Day-Hairston (2005) devised the following questions to guide school counselors in their quest for understanding: "What is your personal experience as a member of this school or community?"; "What particular challenges do you face?"; and "What can school personnel do to help improve situations for you and other students in this school?" This series of questions invites students to share part of their world with the counselor, thus enhancing their perceptions of recognition and feelings of connectedness.
School counseling as a profession has long valued personal relationships and the power of encouragement, and school counselors are more likely than other educators to have a personal, one-on-one relationship with students. This research suggests that school counselors become intentional about establishing such relationships with all students and in particular African American males, who traditionally do not solicit counseling services due to the stigma associated with counseling (Lee, 1992). School counselors can use those relationships to encourage students to become involved in extracurricular activities
within the school, such as clubs, sports teams, or academic teams, or in community-school partnership organizations. Organizations such as the Boys and Girls Club, Urban League, and 100 Black Men make a difference by discussing notions of masculinity, providing leadership skills, as well as providing exposure to college and work settings (Whiting, 2006).
In addition, mentoring has been found to improve attendance and educational aspirations for minority students (Flaxman, 1992). Consistent role models have long been associated with expanding students' visions of what "could be" and increasing academic self-efficacy and academic achievement (Zimmerman, 2000). Getting involved as peer mentors or peer mediators, joining diversity clubs or students leadership teams, or serving as a school counseling office aide all are activities that provide African American male students with opportunities to develop important skills while being connected to school staff and peers. Furthermore, programs such as Bailey and Paisley's (2004) "Gentlemen on the Move" and Grimmett's (2006) "Brothers in Excellence" are exceptional examples of multifaceted programs designed to meet the specific needs of African American males. Regardless of the type of program, the data from this study indicate that the act of inviting an African American male to participate and contribute is, in and of itself, an intervention.
Finally, it is important to note that school counselors from all ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds have the potential to work successfully with African American male students. Research shows that African American students are likely to succeed with counseling if enough rime is allotted to establish trust and develop the relationship (Lee, 2001). This is true regardless of the counselor's race or ethnicity (Day-Vines & Day-Hairston, 2005). Thus, intentional-minded school counselors from all backgrounds can develop interventions that target African American males for increased supportive contact with school staff.
The results from this study and similar studies suggest that the school environment can be adapted to better address the needs of its students, and that creating a culture of encouragement and participation may be a key factor in promoting school retention and participation for underperforming youth. Although this type of supportive school environment is beneficial for all students, it may be especially meaningful to African American males who have been traditionally underserved. Specifically, interventions designed to foster individual recognition and encouragement may be a vital component of keeping many African American males in school and increasing academic success. Such concerted efforts to increase participation and aspirations may go far in reducing the achievement, gender, and opportunity gaps that currently plague African American males.
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Chinwe J. Uwah is a doctoral student and instructor, and H. George McMahon, Ph.D., and Carolyn F. Furlow, Ph.D., are assistant professors, at Georgia State University, Atlanta. E-mail: [email protected]
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Coefficient Alphas for All Scales and Subscales (N = 40) Variable M SD a Academic Self-Efficacy Scale 3.99 0.49 0.74 Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale 3.10 0.39 0.81 Perceived Likeness and Inclusion subscale 3.31 0.42 0.63 Feeling Encouraged to Participate subscale 3.02 0.49 0.66 General Feelings of Belonging subscale 2.99 0.56 0.77 Table 2. Intercorrelations Among Scales, Subscales, and Highest Expected Degree (N = 40) Variable 1 2 3 1. Academic Self-Efficacy Scale -- .29 .26 2. Psychological Sense of School -- .88 ** Membership Scale 3. Perceived Likeness and Inclusion -- subscale 4. Feeling Encouraged to Participate subscale 5. General Feelings of Belonging subscale 6. Educational aspirations Variable 4 5 6 1. Academic Self-Efficacy Scale .42 ** .08 .39 2. Psychological Sense of School .62 ** .82 ** .30 Membership Scale 3. Perceived Likeness and Inclusion .53 ** .59 ** .41 subscale 4. Feeling Encouraged to Participate -- .14 .22 subscale 5. General Feelings of Belonging subscale -- .15 6. Educational aspirations -- * p < .05 level (two-tailed). ** p < .01 level (two-tailed). Table 3. Summary of Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Academic Self-Efficacy (N = 40) Variable B SE B R Perceived Likeness and Inclusion subscale -.09 .26 -.08 Feeling Encouraged to Participate subscale .40 .18 .39 * General Feelings of Belonging subscale .03 .16 .04 Educational aspirations .19 .09 .33 * * p < .05.
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| Author: | Uwah, Chinwe J.; McMahon, H. George; Furlow, Carolyn F. |
|---|---|
| Publication: | Professional School Counseling |
| Article Type: | Report |
| Geographic Code: | 1USA |
| Date: | Jun 1, 2008 |
| Words: | 7398 |
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